ملاحظات
الكروموسوم ١: الحياة
(1)
The idea that the gene and indeed life itself consists of digital
information is found in Richard Dawkins’s River out
of Eden (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1995) and in Jeremy
Campbell’s Grammatical man (Allen Lane,
1983). An excellent account of the debates that still rage about the origin
of life is found in Paul Davies’s The fifth
miracle (Penguin, 1998). For more detailed information on the
RNA world, see Gesteland, R. F. and Atkins, J. F. (eds) (1993). The RNA world. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York.
(2)
Darwin, E. (1794). Zoonomia: or the
laws of organic life. Vol. II, p. 244. Third edition (1801).
J. Johnson, London.
(3)
Campbell, J. (1983). Grammatical man:
information, entropy, language and life. Allen Lane,
London.
(4)
Schrödinger, E. (1967). What is life?
Mind and matter. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
(5)
Quoted in Judson, H, F. (1979). The
eighth day of creation. Jonathan Cape,
London,
(6)
Hodges, A. (1997). Turing.
Phoenix, London.
(7)
Campbell, J. (1983). Grammatical man:
information, entropy, language and life. Allen Lane,
London.
(8)
Joyce, G. F. (1989). RNA evolution and the origins of life.
Nature 338: 217–24; Unrau, P. J. and
Bartel, D. P. (1998). RNA-catalysed nucleotide synthesis. Nature 395: 260–63.
(9)
Gesteland, R. F. and Atkins, J. F. (eds) (1993). The RNA world. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory
Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York.
(10)
Gold, T. (1992). The deep, hot biosphere. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
USA 89: 6045–49; Gold, T. (1997). An unexplored habitat for
life in the universe? American Scientist
85: 408–11.
(11)
Woese, C. (1998). The universal ancestor. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
USA 95: 6854–9.
(12)
Poole, A. M., Jeffares, D.C and Penny, D. (1998). The path from
the RNA world. Journal of Molecular
Evolution 46: 1–17; Jeffares, D. C., Poole, A. M. and Penny,
D. (1998). Relics from the RNA world. Journal of
Molecular Evolution 46: 18–36.
الكروموسوم ٢: النوع
(1)
The story of human evolution from an ape ancestor has been
told and retold many times. Good recent accounts include: N. T. Boaz’s
Eco homo (Basic Books, 1997),
Alan Walker and Pat Shipman’s The wisdom of
bones (Phoenix, 1996), Richard Leakey and Roger Lewin’s
Origins reconsidered (Little,
Brown, 1992) and Don Johanson and Blake Edgar's magnificently
illustrated From Lucy to language
(Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1996).
(2)
Kottler, M. J. (1974). From 48 to 46: cytological technique,
preconception, and the counting of human chromosomes. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 48:
465–502.
(3)
Young, J. Z. (1950). The life of
vertebrates. Oxford University Press,
Oxford.
(4)
Arnason, U., Gullberg, A. and Janke, A. (1998). Molecular
timing of primate divergences as estimated by two non-primate calibration
points. Journal of Molecular Evolution
47: 718–27.
(5)
Huxley, T. H. (1863–1901). Man’s place
in nature and other anthropological essays, p. 153.
Macmillan, London.
(6)
Rogers, A. and Jorde, R. B. (1995). Genetic evidence and modern
human origins. Human Biology 67:
1–36.
(7)
Boaz, N. T. (1997). Eco
homo. Basic Books, New York.
(8)
Walker, A. and Shipman, P. (1996). The
wisdom of bones. Phoenix, London.
(9)
Ridley, M. (1996). The origins of
virtue. Viking, London.
الكروموسوم ٣: التاريخ
(1)
There are many accounts of the history of genetics, of which the
best is Horace Judson’s The eighth day of creation (Jonathan Cape, London,
1979; reprinted by Penguin, 1995). A good account of Mendel’s life is found
in a novel by Simon Mawer: Mendel’s dwarf (Doubleday, 1997).
(2)
Bearn, A. G. and Miller, E. D. (1979). Archibald Garrod and the
development of the concept of inborn errors of metabolism. Bulletin of the History of Medicine 53: 315–28;
Childs, B. (1970). Sir Archibald Garrod’s conception of chemical
individuality: a modern appreciation. New England
Journal of Medicine 282: 71–7; Garrod, A. (1909). Inborn errors of metabolism. Oxford University
Press, Oxford.
(3)
Mendel, G. (1865). Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden. Verhandlungen des naturforschenden Vereines in
Brünn 4: 3–47. English translation published in the Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society,
Vol. 26 (1901).
(4)
Quoted in Fisher, R. A. (1930). The
genetical theory of natural selection. Oxford University
Press, Oxford.
(5)
Bateson, W. (1909). Mendel’s principles
of heredity. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
(6)
Miescher is quoted in Bodmer, W. and McKie, R. (1994).
The book of man. Little, Brown,
London.
(7)
Dawkins, R. (1995). River out of
Eden. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London.
(8)
Hayes, B. (1998). The invention of the genetic code. American Scientist 86:
8–14.
(9)
Scazzocchio, C. (1997). Alkaptonuria: from humans to moulds and
back. Trends in Genetics 13: 125–7;
Fernandez-Canon, J. M. and Penalva, M. A. (1995). Homogentisate dioxygenase
gene cloned in Aspergillus. Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the USA 92:
9132–6.
الكروموسوم ٤: المصير
(1)
For those concerned about inherited disorders such as
Huntington’s disease, the writings of Nancy and Alice Wexler, detailed
in the notes below, are essential reading. Stephen Thomas’s Genetic risk (Pelican, 1986) is a very
accessible guide.
(2)
Thomas, S. (1986). Genetic
risk. Pelican, London.
(3)
Gusella, J. F., McNeil, S., Persichetti, F., Srinidhi, J.,
Novelletto, A., Bird, E., Faber, P., Vonsattel, J.-P., Myers, R. H. and
MacDonald, M. E. (1996). Huntington’s disease. Cold
Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology 61:
615–26.
(4)
Huntington, G. (1872). On chorea. Medical and Surgical Reporter 26:
317–21.
(5)
Wexler, N. (1992). Clairvoyance and caution: repercussions from
the Human Genome Project. In The code of
codes (ed. D. Kevles and L. Hood), pp. 211–43. Harvard
University Press.
(6)
Huntington’s Disease Collaborative Research Group (1993). A
novel gene containing a trinucleotide repeat that is expanded and unstable
on Huntington’s disease chromosomes. Cell 72: 971–83.
(7)
Goldberg, Y. P. et al.
(1996). Cleavage of huntingtin by apopain, a proapoptotic cysteine protease,
is modulated by the polyglutamine tract. Nature
Genetics 13: 442–9; DiFiglia, M., Sapp, E., Chase, K. O.,
Davies, S. W., Bates, G. P., Vonsattel, J. P. and Aronin, N. (1997).
Aggregation of huntingtin in neuronal intranuclear inclusions and dystrophic
neurites in brain. Science 277:
1990–93.
(8)
Kakiuza, A. (1998). Protein precipitation: a common etiology in
neurodegenerative disorders? Trends in
genetics 14: 398–402.
(9)
Bat, O., Kimmel, M. and Axelrod, D. E. (1997). Computer
simulation of expansions of DNA triplet repeats in the fragile-X syndrome
and Huntington’s disease. Journal of Theoretical
Biology 188: 53–67.
(10)
Schweitzer, J. K. and Livingston, D. M. (1997). Destabilisation
of CAG trinucleotide repeat tracts by mismatch repair mutations in yeast.
Human Molecular Genetics 6:
349–55.
(11)
Mangiarini, L. (1997). Instability of highly expanded CAG
repeats in mice transgenic for the Huntington’s disease mutation. Nature Genetics 15: 197–200; Bates, G. P.,
Mangiarini, L., Mahal, A. and Davies, S. W. (1997). Transgenic models of
Huntington’s disease. Human Molecular
Genetics 6: 1633–7.
(12)
Chong, S. S. et al. (1997).
Contribution of DNA sequence and CAG size to mutation frequencies of
intermediate alleles for Huntington’s disease: evidence from single sperm
analyses. Human Molecular Genetics 6:
301–10.
(13)
Wexler, N. S. (1992). The Tiresias complex: Huntington’s
disease as a paradigm of testing for late-onset disorders. FASEB Journal 6:
2820–25.
(14)
Wexler, A. (1995). Mapping
fate. University of California Press, Los
Angeles.
الكروموسوم ٥: البيئة
(1)
One of the best books about gene hunting is William Cookson’s The
gene hunters: adventures in the genome jungle (Aurum Press, 1994). Cookson
is one of my main sources of information on asthma genes.
(2)
Hamilton, G. (1998). Let them eat dirt. New Scientist, 18 July 1998: 26–31; Rook, G. A. W. and
Stanford, J. L. (1998). Give us this day our daily germs. Immunology Today 19:
113–16.
(3)
Cookson, W. (1994). The gene hunters:
adventures in the genome jungle. Aurum Press,
London.
(4)
Marsh, D. G. et al. (1994).
Linkage analysis of IL4 and other chromosome 5q31.1 markers and total serum
immunoglobulin-E concentrations. Science 264: 1152–6.
(5)
Martinez, F. D. et al.
(1997). Association between genetic polymorphism of the beta-2-adrenoceptor
and response to albuterol in children with or without a history of wheezing.
Journal of Clinical Investigation
100: 3184–8.
الكروموسوم ٦: الذكاء
(1)
The story of Robert Plomin’s search for genes that influence
intelligence will be told in a forthcoming book by Rosalind Arden. Plomin’s
textbook on Behavioral genetics is an
especially readable introduction to the field (third edition, W. H. Freeman,
1997). Stephen Jay Gould’s Mismeasure of
man (Norton, 1981) is a good account of the early history of
eugenics and IQ. Lawrence Wright’s Twins: genes,
environment and the mystery of identity (Weidenfeld and
Nicolson, 1997) is a delightful read.
(2)
Chorney, M. J., Chorney, K., Seese, N., Owen, M. J., Daniels,
J., McGuffin, P., Thompson, L. A., Detterman, D. K., Benbow, C., Lubinski,
D., Eley, T. and Plomin, R. (1998). A quantitative trait locus associated
with cognitive ability in children. Psychological
Science 9: 1–8.
(3)
Galton, F. (1883). Inquiries into human
faculty. Macmillan, London.
(4)
Goddard, H. H. (1920), quoted in Gould, S. J. (1981). The mismeasure of man. Norton, New
York.
(5)
Neisser, U. et al. (1996).
Intelligence: knowns and unknowns. American
Psychologist 51: 77–101.
(6)
Philpott, M. (1996). Genetic determinism. In Tam, H. (ed.),
Punishment, excuses and moral
development. Avebury, Aldershot.
(7)
Wright, L. (1997). Twins: genes,
environment and the mystery of identity. Weidenfeld and
Nicolson, London.
(8)
Scarr, S. (1992). Developmental theories for the 1990s:
development and individual differences. Child
Development 63: 1–19.
(9)
Daniels, M., Devlin, B. and Roeder, K. (1997). Of genes and IQ.
In Devlin, B., Fienberg, S. E., Resnick, D. P. and Roeder, K. (eds),
Intelligence, genes and success.
Copernicus, New York.
(10)
Herrnstein, R. J. and Murray, C. (1994). The bell curve. The Free Press, New
York.
(11)
Haier, R. et al. (1992).
Intelligence and changes in regional cerebral glucose metabolic rate
following learning. Intelligence 16:
415–26.
(12)
Gould, S. J. (1981). The mismeasure of
man. Norton, New York.
(13)
Furlow, F. B., Armijo-Prewitt, T., Gangestead, S. W. and
Thornhill, R. (1997). Fluctuating asymmetry and psychometric intelligence.
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London,
Series B 264: 823–9.
(14)
Neisser, U. (1997). Rising scores on intelligence tests.
American Scientist 85:
440–47.
الكروموسوم ٧: الغريزة
(1)
Evolutionary psychology, the theme of this chapter, is explored
in several books, including Jerome Barkow, Leda Cosmides and John Tooby’s
The adapted mind (Oxford University
Press, 1992), Robert Wright’s The moral
animal (Pantheon, 1994), Steven Pinker’s How the mind works (Penguin, 1998) and my own
The red queen (Viking, 1993). The
origin of human language is explored in Steven Pinker’s The language instinct (Penguin, 1994) and
Terence Deacon’s The symbolic species
(Penguin, 1997).
(2)
For the death of Freudianism: Wolf, T. (1997). Sorry but your
soul just died. The Independent on
Sunday, 2 February 1997. For the death of Meadism: Freeman,
D. (1983). Margaret Mead and Samoa: the making and unmaking of an
anthropological myth. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA; Freeman, D.
(1997). Frans Boas and “The flower of heaven”. Penguin, London. For the death of behaviourism: Harlow, H. F.,
Harlow, M. K. and Suomi, S. J. (1971). From thought to therapy: lessons from
a primate laboratory. American Scientist
59: 538–49.
(3)
Pinker, S. (1994). The language
instinct the new science of language and mind. Penguin,
London.
(4)
Dale, P. S., Simonoff, E., Bishop, D. V. M., Eley, T. C.,
Oliver, B., Price, T. S., Purcell, S., Stevenson, J. and Plomin, R. (1998).
Genetic influence on language delay in two-year-old children. Nature Neuroscience 1: 324–8; Paulesu, E. and
Mehler, J. (1998). Right on in sign language. Nature 392: 233–4.
(5)
Carter, R. (1998). Mapping the
mind. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London.
(6)
Bishop, D. V. M., North, T. and Donlan, C. (1995). Genetic
basis of specific language impairment: evidence from a twin study. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 37:
56–71.
(7)
Fisher, S. E., Vargha-Khadem, F., Watkins, K. E., Monaco, A. P.
and Pembrey, M. E. (1998). Localisation of a gene implicated in a severe
speech and language disorder. Nature
Genetics 18: 168–70.
(8)
Gopnik, M. (1990). Feature-blind grammar and dysphasia.
Nature 344:
715.
(9)
Fletcher, P. (1990). Speech and language deficits. Nature 346: 226; Vargha-Khadem, F. and
Passingham, R. E. (1990). Speech and language deficits. Nature 346: 226.
(10)
Gopnik, M., Dalakis, J., Fukuda, S. E., Fukuda, S. and Kehayia,
E. (1996). Genetic language impairment: unruly grammars. In Runciman, W. G.,
Maynard Smith, J. and Dunbar, R. I. M. (eds), Evolution of social behaviour patterns in primates and man,
pp. 223–49. Oxford University Press, Oxford; Gopnik, M. (ed.) (1997).
The inheritance and innateness of
grammars. Oxford University Press,
Oxford.
(11)
Gopnik, M. and Goad, H. (1997). What underlies inflectional
error patterns in genetic dysphasia? Journal of
Neurolinguistics 10: 109–38; Gopnik, M. (1999). Familial
language impairment: more English evidence. Folia
Phonetica et Logopaedia 51: in press. Myrna Gopnik, e-mail
correspondence with the author, 1998.
(12)
Associated Press, 8 May 1997; Pinker, S. (1994). The language instinct: the new science of language and
mind. Penguin, London.
(13)
Mineka, S. and Cook, M. (1993). Mechanisms involved in the
observational conditioning of fear. Journal of
Experimental Psychologv, General 122:
23–38.
(14)
Dawkins, R. (1986). The blind
watchmaker. Longman, Essex.
الكروموسومان إكس وواي: الصراع
(1)
The best place to find out more about intragenomic conflict is in
Michael Majerus, Bill Amos and Gregory Hurst’s textbook Evolution: the four billion year war (Longman,
1996) and W. D. Hamilton’s Narrow roads of gene
land (W. H. Freeman, 1995). For the studies that led to the
conclusion that homosexuality was partly genetic, see Dean Hamer and Peter
Copeland’s The science of desire (Simon
and Schuster, 1995) and Chandler Burr’s A separate
creation: how biology makes us gay (Bantam Press,
1996).
(2)
Amos, W. and Harwood, J. (1998). Factors affecting levels of
genetic diversity in natural populations. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series
B 353: 177–86.
(3)
Rice, W. R. and Holland, B. (1997). The enemies within:
intergenomic conflict, interlocus contest evolution (ICE), and the
intraspecific Red Queen. Behavioral Ecology and
Sociobiology 41: 1–10.
(4)
Majerus, M., Amos, W. and Hurst, G. (1996). Evolution: the four billion year war. Longman,
Essex.
(5)
Swain, A., Narvaez, V., Burgoyne, P., Camerino, G. and
Lovell-Badge, R. (1998). Daxi antagonises sry action in mammalian sex
determination. Nature 391:
761–7.
(6)
Hamilton, W. D. (1967). Extraordinary sex ratios. Science 156: 477–88.
(7)
Amos, W. and Harwood, J. (1998). Factors affecting levels of
genetic diversity in natural populations. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series
B 353: 177–86.
(8)
Rice, W. R. (1992). Sexually antagonistic genes: experimental
evidence. Science 256:
1436–9.
(9)
Haig, D. (1993). Genetic conflicts in human pregnancy.
Quarterly Review of Biology 68:
495–531.
(10)
Holland, B. and Rice, W. R. (1998). Chase-away sexual
selection: antagonistic seduction versus resistance. Evolution 52: 1–7.
(11)
Rice, W. R. and Holland, B. (1997). The enemies within:
intergenomic conflict, interlocus contest evolution (ICE), and the
intraspecific Red Queen. Behavioral Ecology and
Sociobiology 41: 1–10.
(12)
Hamer, D. H., Hu, S., Magnuson, V. L., Hu, N. et al. (1993). A linkage between DNA markers on
the X chromosome and male sexual orientation. Science 261: 321–7; Pillard, R. C. and Weinrich, J. D.
(1986). Evidence of familial nature of male homosexuality. Archives of General Psychiatry 43:
808–12.
(13)
Bailey, J. M. and Pillard, R. C. (1991). A genetic study of
male sexual orientation. Archives of General
Psychiatry 48: 1089–96; Bailey, J. M. and Pillard, R. C.
(1995). Genetics of human sexual orientation. Annual
Review of Sex Research 6: 126–50.
(14)
Hamer, D. H., Hu, S., Magnuson, V. L., Hu, N. et al. (1993). A linkage between DNA markers on
the X chromosome and male sexual orientation. Science 261: 321–7.
(15)
Bailey, J. M., Pillard, R. C., Dawood, K., Miller, M. B.,
Trivedi, S., Farrer, L. A. and Murphy, R. L.; in press. A family history
study of male sexual orientation: no evidence for X-linked transmission.
Behaviour
Genetics.
(16)
Blanchard, R. (1997). Birth order and sibling sex ratio in
homosexual versus heterosexual males and females. Annual Review of Sex Research 8:
27–67.
(17)
Blanchard, R. and Klassen, P. (1997). H-Y antigen and
homosexuality in men. Journal of Theoretical
Biology 185: 373–8; Arthur, B. I., Jallon, J.-M., Caflisch,
B., Choffat, Y. and Nothiger, R. (1998). Sexual behaviour in Drosophila is irreversibly programmed during a
critical period. Current Biology 8:
1187–90.
(18)
Hamilton, W. D. (1995). Narrow roads of
gene land, Vol. 1. W. H. Freeman,
Basingstoke.
الكروموسوم ٨: الأنانية
(1)
Again, one of the best sources on mobile genetic elements
is the textbook by Michael Majerus, Bill Amos and Gregory Hurst:
Evolution: the four billion year
war (Longman, 1996). A good account of the invention of
genetic fingerprinting is in Walter Bodmer and Robin McKie’s The book of man (Little, Brown, 1994).
Sperm competition theory is explored in Tim Birkhead and Anders Moller’s
Sperm competition in birds
(Academic Press, 1992).
(2)
Susan Blackmore explained this trick in her article “The power
of the meme meme” in the Skeptic, Vol. 5
no. 2, p. 45.
(3)
Kazazian, H. H. and Moran, J. V. (1998). The impact of L1
retrotransposons on the human genome. Nature
Genetics 19: 19–24.
(4)
Casane, D., Boissinot, S., Chang, B. H. J., Shimmin, L. C. and
Li, W. H. (1997). Mutation pattern variation among regions of the primate
genome. Journal of Molecular Evolution
45: 216–26.
(5)
Doolittle, W. F. and Sapienza, C. (1980). Selfish genes, the
phenotype paradigm and genome evolution. Nature 284: 601–3; Orgel, L. E. and Crick, F. H. C. (1980).
Selfish DNA: the ultimate parasite. Nature 284: 604–7.
(6)
McClintock, B. (1951). Chromosome organisation and genic
expression. Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on
Quantitative Biolog 16: 13–47.
(7)
Yoder, J. A., Walsh, C. P. and Bestor, T. H. (1997). Cytosine
methylation and the ecology of intragenomic parasites. Trends in Genetics 13: 335–40; Garrick, D.,
Fiering, S., Martin, D. I. K. and Whitelaw, E. (1998). Repeat-induced gene
silencing in mammals. Nature Genetics 18:
56–9.
(8)
Jeffreys, A. J., Wilson, V. and Thein, S. L. (1985).
Hypervariable “minisatellite” regions in human DNA. Nature 314: 67–73.
(9)
Reilly, P. R. and Page, D. C. (1998). We’re off to see the
genome. Nature Genetics 20: 15–17;
New Scientist, 28 February 1998, p.
20.
(10)
See Daily Telegraph, 14 July
1998, and Sunday Times, 19 July
1998.
(11)
Ridley, M. (1993). The Red Queen: sex
and the evolution of human nature. Viking,
London.
الكروموسوم ٩: المرض
(1)
Randy Nesse and George Williams’s Evolution and healing (Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1995) is the
best introduction to Darwinian medicine and the interplay between genes and
pathogens.
(2)
Crow, J. F. (1993). Felix Bernstein and the first human marker
locus. Genetics 133:
4–7.
(3)
Yamomoto, F., Clausen, H., White, T., Marken, S. and Hakomori,
S. (1990). Molecular genetic basis of the histo-blood group ABO system.
Nature 345:
229–33.
(4)
Dean, A. M. (1998). The molecular anatomy of an ancient
adaptive event. American Scientist 86:
26–37.
(5)
Gilbert, S. C., Plebanski, M., Gupta, S., Morris, J., Cox, M.,
Aidoo, M., Kwiatowski, D., Greenwood, B. M., Whittle, H. C. and Hill, A. V.
S. (1998). Association of malaria parasite population structure, HLA and
immunological antagonism. Science 1173–7;
also A. Hill, personal communication.
(6)
Pier, G. B. et al. (1998).
Salmonella typhi uses CFTR to enter
intestinal epithelial cells. Nature 393:
79–82.
(7)
Hill, A. V. S. (1996). Genetics of infectious disease
resistance. Current Opinion in Genetics and
Development 6: 348–53.
(8)
Ridley, M. (1997). Disease.
Phoenix, London.
(9)
Cavalli-Sforza, L. L. and Cavalli-Sforza, F. (1995). The great human diasporas. Addison Wesley,
Reading, Massachusetts.
(10)
Wederkind, C. and Füri, S. (1997). Body odour preferences in
men and women: do they aim for specific MHC combinations or simple
heterogeneity? Proceedings of the Royal Society of
London, Series B 264: 1471–9.
(11)
Hamilton, W. D. (1990). Memes of Haldane and Jayakar in a
theory of sex. Journal of Genetics 69:
17–32.
الكروموسوم ١٠: التوتر
(1)
The tricky subject of psychoneuroimmunology is explored by
Paul Martin’s The sickening mind
(Harper Collins, 1997).
(2)
Martin, P. (1997). The sickening mind:
brain, behaviour, immunity and disease. Harper Collins,
London.
(3)
Becker, J. B., Breedlove, M. S. and Crews, D. (1992). Behavioral endocrinology. MIT Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
(4)
Marmot, M. G., Davey Smith, G., Stansfield, S., Patel, C.,
North, F. and Head, J. (1991). Health inequalities among British civil
servants: the Whitehall II study. Lancet
337: 1387–93.
(5)
Sapolsky, R. M. (1997). The trouble
with testosterone and other essays on the biology of the human
predicament. Touchstone Press, New
York.
(6)
Folstad, I. and Karter, A. J. (1992). Parasites, bright males
and the immunocompetence handicap. American
Naturalist 139: 603–22.
(7)
Zuk, M. (1992). The role of parasites in sexual selection:
current evidence and future directions. Advances in
the Study of Behavior 21: 39–68.
الكروموسوم ١١: الشخصية
(1)
Dean Hamer has both done the research and written the books on
personality genetics and the search for genetic markers that correlate with
personality differences. His book, with Peter Copeland, is Living with our genes (Doubleday,
1998).
(2)
Hamer, D. and Copeland, P. (1998). Living with our genes. Doubleday, New
York.
(3)
Efran, J. S., Greene, M. A. and Gordon, D. E. (1998). Lessons
of the new genetics. Family Therapy
Networker 22 (March-April 1998):
26–41.
(4)
Kagan, J. (1994). Galen’s prophecy:
temperament in human nature. Basic Books, New
York.
(5)
Wurtman, R. J. and Wurtman,J. J. (1994). Carbohydrates and
depression. In Masters, R. D. and McGuire, M. T. (eds), The neurotransmitter revolution, pp. 96–109.
Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and
Edwardsville.
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Kaplan, J. R., Fontenot, M. B., Manuck, S. B. and Muldoon, M.
F. (1996). Influence of dietary lipids on agonistic and affiliative behavior
in Macaca fascicularis. American Journal of
Primatology 38: 333–47.
(7)
Raleigh, M. J. and McGuire, M. T. (1994). Serotonin, aggression
and violence in vervet monkeys. In Masters, R. D. and McGuire, M. T. (eds),
The neurotransmitter revolution, pp.
129–45. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and
Edwardsville.
الكروموسوم ١٢: التجميع الذاتي
(1)
The story of homeotic genes and the way in which they have
opened up the study of embryology is told in two recent textbooks:
Principles of development by
Lewis Wolpert (with Rosa Beddington, Jeremy Brockes, Thomas Jessell,
Peter Lawrence and Elliot Meyerowitz) (Oxford University Press, 1998),
and Cells, embryos and evolution by
John Gerhart and Marc Kirschner (Blackwell, 1997).
(2)
Bateson, W. (1894). Materials for the
study of variation. Macmillan, London.
(3)
Tautz, D. and Schmid, K. J. (1998). From genes to individuals:
developmental genes and the generation of the phenotype. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London,
Series B 353: 231–40.
(4)
Nüsslein-Volhard, C. and Wieschaus, E. (1980). Mutations
affecting segment number and polarity in Drosophila.
Nature 287: 795–801.
(5)
McGinnis, W., Garber, R. L., Wirz, J., Kuriowa, A. and Gehring,
W. J. (1984). A homologous protein coding sequence in Drosophila homeotic genes and its conservation
in other metazoans. Cell 37: 403–8;
Scott, M. and Weiner, A. J. (1984). Structural relationships among genes
that control development: sequence homology between the Antennapedia, Ultrabithorax and fushi tarazu loci of Drosophila. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
USA 81: 4115–9.
(6)
Arendt, D. and Nubler-Jung, K. (1994). Inversion of the
dorso-ventral axis? Nature 371:
26.
(7)
Sharman, A. C. and Brand, M. (1998). Evolution and homology of
the nervous system: cross-phylum rescues of otd/Otx genes. Trends in
Genetics 14: 211–14.
(8)
Duboule, D. (1995). Vertebrate hox genes and proliferation—an
alternative pathway to homeosis. Current Opinion in
Genetics and Development 5: 525–8; Krumlauf, R. (1995). Hox
genes in vertebrate development. Cell 78:
191–201.
(9)
Zimmer, C. (1998). At the water’s
edge. Free Press, New York.
الكروموسوم ١٣: ما قبل التاريخ
(1)
The geography of genes is explored in Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza
and Francesco Cavalli-Sforza’s The great human
diasporas (Addison Wesley, 1995); some of the same material
is also covered in Jared Diamond’s Guns, germs and
steel (Jonathan Cape, 1997).
(2)
Cavalli-Sforza, L. (1998). The DNA revolution in population
genetics. Trends in Genetics 14:
60–65.
(3)
Intriguingly, the genetic evidence generally points to a far
more rapid migration rate for women’s genes than men’s (comparing maternally
inherited mitochondria with paternally inherited Y chromosomes)—perhaps
eight times as high. This is partly because in human beings, as in other
apes, it is generally females that leave, or are abducted from, their native
group when they mate. Jensen, M. (1998). All about Adam. New Scientist, 11 July 1998:
35–9.
(4)
Reported in HMS Beagle: The Biomednet
Magazine (www.biomednet.com/hmsbeagle), issue
20, November 1997.
(5)
Holden, C. and Mace, R. (1997). Phylogenetic analysis of the
evolution of lactose digestion in adults. Human
Biology 69: 605–28.
الكروموسوم ١٤: الخلود
(1)
Two good books on ageing are Steven Austad’s Why we age (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) and Tom
Kirkwood’s Time of our lives (Weidenfeld
and Nicolson, 1999).
(2)
Slagboom, P. E., Droog, S. and Boomsma, D. I. (1994). Genetic
determination of telomere size in humans: a twin study of three age groups.
American Journal of Human Genetics
55: 876–82.
(3)
Lingner, J., Hughes, T. R., Shevchenko, A., Mann, M., Lundblad,
V. and Cech, T. R. (1997). Reverse transcriptase motifs in the catalytic
subunit of telomerase. Science 276:
561–7.
(4)
Clark, M. S. and Wall, W. J. (1996). Chromosomes: the complex code. Chapman and Hall,
London.
(5)
Harrington, L., McPhail, T., Mar, V., Zhou, W., Oulton, R., Bass,
M. B., Aruda, I. and Robinson, M. O. (1997). A mammalian
telomerase-associated protein. Science
275: 973–7; Saito, T., Matsuda, Y., Suzuki, T., Hayashi, A., Yuan, X.,
Saito, M., Nakayama, J., Hori, T. and Ishikawa, F. (1997). Comparative
gene-mapping of the human and mouse TEP-1 genes, which encode one protein
component of telomerases. Genomics 46:
46–50.
(6)
Bodnar, A. G. et al. (1998).
Extension of life-span by introduction of telomerase into normal human
cells. Science 279:
349–52.
(7)
Niida, H., Matsumoto, T., Satoh, H., Shiwa, M., Tokutake, Y.,
Furuichi, Y. and Shinkai, Y. (1998). Severe growth defect in mouse cells
lacking the telomerase RNA component. Nature
Genetics 19: 203–6.
(8)
Chang, E. and Harley, C. B. (1995). Telomere length and
replicative aging in human vascular tissues. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA
92: 11190–94.
(9)
Austad, S. (1997). Why we
age. John Wiley, New York.
(10)
Slagboom, P. E., Droog, S. and Boomsma, D. I. (1994). Genetic
determination of telomere size in humans: a twin study of three age groups.
American Journal of Human Genetics
55: 876–82.
(11)
Ivanova, R. et al. (1998).
HLA-DR alleles display sex-dependent effects on survival and discriminate
between individual and familial longevity. Human
Molecular Genetics 7: 187–94.
(12)
The figure of 7,000 genes is given by George Martin, quoted in
Austad, S. (1997). Why we age. John
Wiley, New York.
(13)
Feng, J. et al. (1995). The
RNA component of human telomerase. Science
269: 1236–41.
الكروموسوم ١٥: الجنس
(1)
Wolf Reik and Azim Surani’s Genomic
imprinting (Oxford University Press, 1997) is a good
collection of essays on the topic of imprinting. Many books explore
gender differences including my own The Red
Queen (Viking, 1993).
(2)
Holm, V. et al. (1993).
Prader-Willi syndrome: consensus diagnostic criteria. Pediatrics 91: 398–401.
(3)
Angelman, H. (1965). “Puppet” children. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology 7:
681–8.
(4)
McGrath, J. and Solter, D. (1984). Completion of mouse
embryogenesis requires both the maternal and paternal genomes. Cell 37: 179–83; Barton, S. C., Surami, M. A.
H. and Norris, M. L. (1984). Role of paternal and maternal genomes in mouse
development. Nature 311:
374–6.
(5)
Haig, D. and Westoby, M. (1989). Parent-specific gene
expression and the triploid endosperm. American
Naturalist 134: 147–55.
(6)
Haig, D. and Graham, C. (1991). Genomic imprinting and the
strange case of the insulin-like growth factor II receptor. Cell 64: 1045–6.
(7)
Dawson, W. (1965). Fertility and size inheritance in a
Peromyscus species cross. Evolution 19:
44–5 5; Mestel, R. (1998). The genetic battle of the sexes. Natural History 107:
44–9.
(8)
Hurst, L. D. and McVean, G. T. (1997). Growth effects of
uniparental disomies and the conflict theory of genomic imprinting.
Trends in Genetics 13: 436-43; Hurst,
L. D. (1997). Evolutionary theories of genomic imprinting. In Reik, W. and
Surani, A. (eds), Genomic imprinting, pp.
211–37. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
(9)
Horsthemke, B. (1997). Imprinting in the Prader-Willi/Angelman
syndrome region on human chromosome 15. In Reik, W. and Surani, A. (eds),
Genomic imprinting, pp. 177–90.
Oxford University Press, Oxford.
(10)
Reik, W. and Constancia, M. (1997). Making sense or antisense?
Nature 389:
669–71.
(11)
McGrath, J. and Solter, D. (1984). Completion of mouse
embryogenesis requires both the maternal and paternal genomes. Cell 37: 179–83.
(12)
Jaenisch, R. (1997). DNA methylation and imprinting: why
bother? Trends in Genetics 13:
323–9.
(13)
Cassidy, S. B. (1995). Uniparental disomy and genomic
imprinting as causes of human genetic disease. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis 25, Suppl. 26:
13–20; Kishino, T. and Wagstaff, J. (1998). Genomic organisation of the
UBE3A/E6-AP gene and related pseudogenes. Genomics 47: 101–7.
(14)
Jiang, Y., Tsai, T.-F., Bressler, J. and Beaudet, A. L. (1998).
Imprinting in Angelman and Prader-Willi syndromes. Current Opinion in Genetics and Development 8:
334–42.
(15)
Allen, N. D., Logan, K., Lally, G., Drage, D. J., Norris, M.
and Keverne, E. B. (1995). Distribution of pathenogenetic cells in the mouse
brain and their influence on brain development and behaviour. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
USA 92: 10782–6; Trivers, R. and Burt, A. (in preparation),
Kinship and genomic
imprinting.
(16)
Vines, G. (1997). Where did you get your brains? New Scientist, 3 May 1997: 34–9; Lefebvre, L.,
Viville, S., Barton, S. C., Ishino, F., Keverne, E. B. and Surani, M. A.
(1998). Abnormal maternal behaviour and growth retardation associated with
loss of the imprinted gene Mest. Nature Genetics 20: 163–9.
(17)
Pagel, M. (1999). Mother and father in surprise genetic
agreement. Nature 397:
19–20.
(18)
Skuse, D. H. et al. (1997).
Evidence from Turner’s syndrome of an imprinted locus affecting cognitive
function. Nature 387:
705–8.
(19)
Diamond, M. and Sigmundson, H. K. (1997). Sex assignment at
birth: long-term review and clinical implications. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 151:
298–304.
الكروموسوم ١٦: الذاكرة
(1)
There are no good popular books on the genetics of learning
mechanisms. A good textbook is: M. F. Bear, B. W. Connors and M. A.
Paradiso’s Neuroscience: exploring the
brain (Williams and Wilkins, 1996).
(2)
Baldwin, J. M. (1896). A new factor in evolution. American Naturalist 30: 441–51,
536–53.
(3)
Schacher, S., Castelluci, V. F. and Kandel, E. R. (1988). cAMP
evokes long-term facilitation in Aplysia
neurons that requires new protein synthesis. Science 240: 1667–9.
(4)
Bailey, C. H., Bartsch, D. and Kandel, E. R. (1996). Towards a
molecular definition of long-term memory storage. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA
93: 12445– 52.
(5)
Tully, T., Preat, T., Boynton, S. C. and Del Vecchio, M.
(1994). Genetic dissection of consolidated memory in Drosophila. Cell 79: 39–47; Dubnau, J. and Tully, T. (1998).
Gene discovery in Drosophila: new
insights for learning and memory. Annual Review of
Neuroscience 21: 407–44.
(6)
Silva, A. J., Smith, A. M. and Giese, K. P. (1997). Gene
targeting and the biology of learning and memory. Annual Review of Genetics 31: 527–46.
(7)
Davis, R. L. (1993). Mushroom bodies and Drosophila learning. Neuron 11: 1–14; Grotewiel, M. S., Beck, C. D. O., Wu, K.
H., Zhu, X.-R. and Davis, R. L. (1998). Integrin-mediated short-term memory
in Drosophila. Nature 391:
455–60.
(8)
Vargha-Khadem, F., Gadian, D. G., Watkins, K. E., Connelly, A.,
Van-Paesschen, W. and Mishkin, M. (1997). Differential effects of early
hippocampal pathology on episodic and semantic memory. Science 277: 376–80.
الكروموسوم ١٧: الموت
(1)
The best recent account of cancer research is Robert Weinberg’s
One renegade cell (Weidenfeld and
Nicolson, 1998).
(2)
Hakem, R. et al. (1998).
Differential requirement for caspase 9 in apoptotic pathways in vivo. Cell 94:
339–52.
(3)
Ridley, M. (1996). The origins of
virtue. Viking, London; Raff, M. (1998). Cell suicide for
beginners. Nature 396:
119–22.
(4)
Cookson, W. (1994). The gene hunters:
adventures in the genome jungle. Aurum Press,
London.
(5)
Sunday Telegraph, 3 May
1998, p. 25.
(6)
Weinberg, R. (1998). One renegade
cell. Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London.
(7)
Levine, A. J. (1997). P53, the cellular gatekeeper for growth
and division. Cell 88:
323–31.
(8)
Lowe, S. W. (1995). Cancer therapy and p53. Current Opinion in Oncology 7:
547–53.
(9)
Hüber, A.-O. and Evan, G. I. (1998). Traps to catch unwary
oncogenes. Trends in Genetics 14:
364–7.
(10)
Cook-Deegan, R. (1994). The gene wars:
science, politics and the human genome. W. W. Norton, New
York.
(11)
Krakauer, D. C. and Payne, R. J. H. (1997). The evolution of
virus-induced apoptosis. Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London, Series B 264:
1757–62.
(12)
Le Grand, E. K. (1997). An adaptationist view of apoptosis.
Quarterly Review of Biology 72:
135–47.
الكروموسوم ١٨: العلاج
(1)
Geoff Lyon and Peter Gorner’s blow-by-blow account of the
development of gene therapy, Altered
fates (Norton, 1996) is a good place to start. Eat your genes by Stephen Nottingham (Zed
Books, 1998) details the history of plant genetic engineering. Lee
Silver’s Remaking Eden (Weidenfeld
and Nicolson, 1997) explores the implications of reproductive
technologies and genetic engineering in human beings.
(2)
Verma, I. M. and Somia, N. (1997). Gene therapy— promises,
problems and prospects. Nature 389:
239–42.
(3)
Carter, M. H. (1996). Pioneer Hi-Bred: testing for gene
transfers. Harvard Business School Case Study
N9–597–055.
(4)
Capecchi, M. R. (1989). Altering the genome by homologous
recombination. Science 244:
1288–92.
(5)
First, N. and Thomson, J. (1998). From cows stem therapies?
Nature Biotechnology 16:
620–21.
الكروموسوم ١٩: الوقاية
(1)
The promises and perils of genetic screening have been discussed
at great length in many books, articles and reports, but few stand out as
essential sources of wisdom. Chandler Burr’s A
separate creation: how biology makes us gay (Bantam Press,
1996) is one.
(2)
Lyon, J. and Gorner, P. (1996). Altered
fates. Norton, New York.
(3)
Eto, M., Watanabe, K. and Makino, I. (1989). Increased
frequencies of apolipoprotein E2 and E4 alleles in patients with ischemic
heart disease. Clinical Genetics 36:
183–8.
(4)
Lucotte, G., Loirat, F. and Hazout, S. (1997). Patterns of
gradient of apolipoprotein E allele ⋆ 4 frequencies in western Europe. Human Biology 69:
253–62.
(5)
Kamboh, M. I. (1995). Apolipoprotein E polymorphism and
susceptibility to Alzheimer’s disease. Human
Biology 67: 195–215; Flannery, T. (1998). Throwim way leg. Weidenfeld and Nicolson,
London.
(6)
Cook-Degan, R. (1995). The gene wars:
science, politics and the human genome. Norton, New
York.
(7)
Kamboh, M. I. (1995). Apolipoprotein E polymorphism and
susceptibility to Alzheimer’s disease. Human
Biology 67: 195–215; Corder, E. H. et
al. (1994). Protective effect of apolipoprotein E type 2
allele for late onset Alzheimer disease. Nature
Genetics 7: 180–84.
(8)
Bickeboller, H. et al.
(1997). Apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer disease: genotypic-specific risks by
age and sex. American journal of Human
Genetics 60: 439–46; Payami, H. et al.
(1996). Gender difference in apolipoprotein E-associated risk for familial
Alzheimer disease: a possible clue to the higher incidence of Alzheimer
disease in women. American foumal of Human
Genetics 58: 803–11; Tang, M.-X. et al.
(1996). Relative risk of Alzheimer disease and age-at-onset distributions,
based on APOE genotypes among elderly African Americans, Caucasians and
Hispanics in New York City. American Journal of
Human Genetics 58: 574–84.
(9)
Caldicott, F. et al. (1998).
Mental disorders and genetics: the ethical
context. Nuffield Council on Bioethics,
London.
(10)
Bickeboller, H. et al.
(1997). Apolipoprotein E and Alzheimer disease: genotypic-specific risks by
age and sex. American Journal of Human Genetics 60: 439–46.
(11)
Maddox, J. (1998). What remains to be
discovered. Macmillan, London.
(12)
Cookson, C. (1998). Markers on the road to avoiding illness.
Financial Times, 3 March 1998, p. 18;
Schmidt, K. (1998). Just for you. New Scientist, 14 November 1998, p. 32.
(13)
Wilkie, T. (1996). The people who want to look inside your
genes. Guardian, 3 October
1996.
الكروموسوم ٢٠: السياسة
(1)
The story of prions is exceptionally well told in Rosalind
Ridley and Harry Baker’s Fatal
protein (Oxford University Press, 1998). I have also
drawn on Richard Rhodes’s Deadly
feasts (Simon and Schuster, 1997) and Robert Klitzman’s
The trembling mountain (Plenum,
1998).
(2)
Prusiner, S. B. and Scott, M. R. (1997). Genetics of prions.
Annual Review of Genetics 31:
139–75.
(3)
Brown, D. R. et al. (1997).
The cellular prion protein binds copper in vivo.
Nature 390: 684–7.
(4)
Prusiner, S. B., Scott, M. R., DeArmand, S. J. and Cohen, F. E.
(1998). Prion protein biology. Cell 93:
337–49.
(5)
Klein, M. A. et al. (1997).
A crucial role for B cells in neuroinvasive scrapie. Nature 390: 687–90.
(6)
Ridley, R. M. and Baker H. F. (1998). Fatal protein. Oxford University Press,
Oxford.
الكروموسوم ٢١: اليوجينيا
(1)
The most thorough history of the eugenics movement, Dan Kevles’s
In the name of eugenics (Harvard
University Press, 1985) concentrates mostly on America. For the European
scene, John Carey’s The intellectuals and the
masses (Faber and Faber, 1992) is
eye-opening.
(2)
Hawkins, M. (1997). Social Darwinism in
European and American thought. Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge.
(3)
Kevles, D. (1985). In the name of
eugenics. Harvard University Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
(4)
Paul, D. B. and Spencer, H. G. (1995). The hidden science of
eugenics. Nature 374:
302–5.
(5)
Carey, J. (1992). The intellectuals and
the masses. Faber and Faber, London.
(6)
Anderson, G. (1994). The politics of the mental deficiency act.
M.Phil. dissertation, University of Cambridge.
(7)
Hansard, 29 May
1913.
(8)
Wells, H. G., Huxley, J. S. and Wells, G. P. (1931). The science of life. Cassell,
London.
(9)
Kealey, T., personal communication; Lindzen, R. (1996). Science
and politics: global warming and eugenics. In Hahn, R. W. (ed.), Risks, costs and lives saved, pp. 85–103.
Oxford University Press, Oxford.
(10)
King, D. and Hansen, R. (1999). Experts at work: state
autonomy, social learning and eugenic sterilisation in 1930s Britain.
British Journal of Political Science
29: 77–107.
(11)
Searle, G. R. (1979). Eugenics and politics in Britain in the
1930s. Annals of Political Science 36:
159–69.
(12)
Kitcher, P. (1996). The lives to
come. Simon and Schuster, New York.
(13)
Quoted in an interview in the Sunday
Telegraph, 8 February 1997.
(14)
Lynn, R. (1996). Dysgenics: genetic
deterioration in modem populations. Praeger, Westport,
Connecticut.
(15)
Reported in HMS Beagle: The Biomednet
Magazine (
www.biomednet.com/hmsbeagle), issue
20, November 1997.
(16)
Morton, N. (1998). Hippocratic or hypocritic: birthpangs of an
ethical code. Nature Genetics 18: 18;
Coghlan, A. (1998). Perfect people’s republic. New
Scientist, 24 October 1998, p. 24.
الكروموسوم ٢٢: الإرادة الحرة
(1)
The most intelligent book on determinism is Judith Rich Harris’s
The nurture assumption (Bloomsbury,
1998). Steven Rose’s Lifelines (Penguin,
1998) makes the opposing case. Dorothy Nelkin and Susan Lindee’s The DNA mystique (Freeman, 1995) is worth a
look.
(2)
Rich Harris, J. (1998). The nurture
assumption. Bloomsbury, London.
(3)
Ehrenreich, B. and McIntosh, J. (1997). The new creationism.
Nation, 9 June
1997.
(4)
Rose, S., Kamin, L. J. and Lewontin, R. C. (1984). Not in our genes. Pantheon,
London.
(5)
Brittan, S. (1998). Essays, moral, political and economic.
Hume Papers on Public Policy, Vol. 6,
no. 4. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh.
(6)
Reznek, L. (1997). Evil or ill?
Justifying the insanity defence. Routledge,
London.
(7)
Wilson, E. O. (1998). Consilience. Little, Brown, New York.
(8)
Darwin’s views on free will are quoted in Wright, R. (1994).
The moral animal. Pantheon, New
York.
(9)
Silver, B. (1998). The ascent of
science. Oxford University Press,
Oxford.
(10)
Ayer, A. J. (1954). Philosophical
essays. Macmillan, London.
(11)
Lyndon Eaves, quoted in Wright, L. (1997). Twins: genes, environment and mystery of
identity. Weidenfeld and Nicolson,
London.
