الملاحظات
الجزء الأول: البالغون الثنائيو اللغة
الفصل الأول: لماذا يصبح الناس ثنائيي اللغة؟
(1)
Raymond G. Gordon, ed., Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 15th ed.
(Dallas: SIL International, 2005);
www.ethnologue.com.
(2)
Ibid. William Mackey, Bilingualism as a World Problem (Montreal:
Harvest House, 1967).
(3)
From François Grosjean, Life with Two Languages: An
Introduction to Bilingualism (Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1982),
15.
(4)
Andrew Buncombe and Tessa MacArthur, “London:
Multilingual Capital of the World,” Independent (London), 29 March 1999;
www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/estuary/multiling.htm.
James Black, “The English Market Town Where They Speak 65
Languages … and a Quarter of the People Are Eastern European
Migrants,” Daily Mail, 23
April 2008.
(5)
From Grosjean, Life
with Two Languages,
36.
(6)
Ibid.
(7)
Ibid.
(8)
See François Grosjean, “The Bilingualism and
Biculturalism of the Deaf,” in Studying
Bilinguals (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2008), chap. 13.
(9)
European Commission, Europeans
and Their Languages, Special Eurobarometer 243
(2006);
ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/
ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf.
(10)
2001 Census of Canada,
www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/home/
index.cfm.
(11)
Grosjean, Life with Two
Languages, 54–57.
(12)
U.S. Census 2000,
www.census.gov/main/www/cen2000.html. One obtains
a very similar figure from the U.S. Census Bureau’s 2005–2007
American Community Survey (ACS), which is based on sampling (1 out
of every 480 households received a questionnaire). In the 2005–2007
survey, a total of 19.5 percent of household members age five years
and older reported speaking a language other than English in the
household. If one takes away one or two points for those who speak
no English at all, the percentage of bilinguals is quite similar to
that based on the 2000 census.
(13)
The figure presented in the 2005–2007 ACS (ibid.) is
close to 34 million.
(14)
From Grosjean, Life
with Two Languages, 9.
(15)
Ibid.
الفصل الثاني: وصف الأشخاص الثنائيي اللغة
(1)
Nancy Huston, Losing North:
Musings on Land, Tongue and Self (Toronto: McArthur,
2002), 40.
(2)
Leonard Bloomfield, Language (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1933), 56.
(3)
Christophe Thiery, “True Bilingualism and
Second Language Learning,” in David Gerver and H. Wallace
Sinaiko, eds., Language
Interpretation and Communication (New York:
Plenum, 1978), 145–153; quotation on
146.
(4)
Einar Haugen, The
Norwegian Language in America: A Study in Bilingual
Behavior (Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 1969), 9.
(5)
Uriel Weinreich, Languages in
Contact (The Hague: Mouton, 1968). William Mackey,
“The Description of Bilingualism,” Canadian
Journal of Linguistics 71 (1962):
51–85.
(6)
For an example of such a questionnaire, see Ping Li,
Sara Sepanski, and Xiaowei Zhao, “Language History Questionnaire: A
Web-Based Interface for Bilingual Research,” Behavioral Research Methods 38 (2006):
202–210.
الفصل الثالث: وظائف اللغات
(1)
For more about Pomerode, see
www.pomerodeonline.com.br. For a classic study of the
bilingual community there, see Jürgen Heye, “Bilingualism and Language
Maintenance in Two Communities in Santa Catarina, Brazil,” in William
McCormack and Stephen Wurm, eds., Language and
Society (The Hague: Mouton, 1979),
401–422.
(2)
On the complementarity principle, see François
Grosjean, “The Bilingual Individual,” Interpreting 2 (1997):
163–187.
(3)
Quoted in François Grosjean, Life with Two Languages: An Introduction
to Bilingualism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1982), 141.
(4)
François Grosjean, Studying
Bilinguals (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008),
chap. 3.
(5)
Grosjean, Life with Two
Languages, 275.
(6)
Ibid., 276.
(7)
See, for example, James Flege, Ian MacKay, and Thorsten
Piske, “Assessing Bilingual Dominance,” Applied Psycholinguistics 23 (2002):
567–598.
(8)
See Ping Li, Sara Sepanski, and Xiaowei Zhao, “Language
History Questionnaire: A Web-Based Interface for Bilingual
Research,” Behavioral Research
Methods 38 (2006): 202–210.
(9)
Robert Cooper, “Degree of Bilingualism,” in Joshua
Fishman, Robert Cooper, and Roxana Ma, eds., Bilingualism in the Barrio (Bloomington: Indiana
University Press, 1971), 273–309.
(10)
Viorica Marian and Ulrich Neisser,
“Language-Dependent Recall of
Autobiographical Memories,” Journal of
Experimental Psychology: General 129 (2000):
361–368.
الفصل الرابع: الوضع اللغوي واختيار اللغة
(1)
The scientific definition of language mode is the state
of activation of the bilingual’s languages and language-processing
mechanism at a given point in time. I discuss this in several
chapters in François Grosjean, Studying
Bilinguals (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2008).
(2)
Carroll Barber, “Trilingualism in an Arizona
Yaqui Village,” in Paul Turner, ed., Bilingualism in the Southwest (Tucson:
University of Arizona Press, 1973), 295–318; quotation on
305.
(3)
I deal extensively with language choice in François
Grosjean, Life with Two Languages: An
Introduction to Bilingualism (Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1982), chap. 3.
(4)
Joan Rubin, National
Bilingualism in Paraguay (The Hague: Mouton,
1968).
(5)
Gerard Hoffman, “Puerto Ricans in New York: A
Language-Related Ethnographic
Summary,” in Joshua Fishman, Robert Cooper, and Roxana Ma, eds.,
Bilingualism in the Barrio
(Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1971),
13–42.
(6)
Rubin, National Bilingualism in
Paraguay.
الفصل الخامس: التبديل اللغوي والاقتباس
(1)
Example from Lenora Timm, “Code-Switching in War and Peace,” in Michel Paradis, ed.,
Aspects of Bilingualism
(Columbia, S.C.: Hornbeam, 1978), 236–249.
(2)
Lynn Haney, Naked at the Feast:
A Biography of Josephine Baker (London: Robson,
1995), 201.
(3)
Einar Haugen, The
Norwegian Language in America: A Study in Bilingual
Behavior (Bloomington: Indiana University
Press, 1969), 70.
(4)
François Grosjean, Life
with Two Languages: An
Introduction to
Bilingualism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1982), 150.
(5)
Ibid., 115.
(6)
Carol Scotton and William Ury, “Bilingual Strategies:
The Social Functions of Code-Switching,” Linguistics 193 (1977):
5–20.
(7)
Paul Preston, Mother Father
Deaf (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1995), 134.
(8)
See the work of researchers such as Peter Auer,
Penelope Gardner-Chloros, Carol Myers-Scotton, Pieter Muysken, Shana
Poplack, and Jeanine Treffers-Daller.
(9)
Shana Poplack, “Sometimes I’ll Start a Sentence
in Spanish y Termino en Español: Toward a Typology of
Code-Switching,” Linguistics 18 (1980): 581–618; quotation on
615-616.
(10)
See François Grosjean, Studying
Bilinguals (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2008).
(11)
Examples from Carol Pfaff, “Constraints on Language
Mixing: Intrasentential Code-Switching and Borrowing in
Spanish/English,” Language 55
(1979): 291–318.
(12)
Example from Anthony Lozano, “Tracing the Spanish
Language,” Agenda 10 (1980):
32–38.
(13)
Example from Wendy Redlinger, “A Description of
Transference and Code-Switching in Mexican-American English and
Spanish,” in Gary Keller, Richard Teschner, and Silva Viera, eds.,
Bilingualism in the Bicentennial and
Beyond (New York: Bilingual Press/Editorial Bilingüe,
1976), 41–52.
(14)
Uriel Weinreich, Languages in
Contact (The Hague: Mouton, 1968),
57.
(15)
Ibid.
(16)
As quoted in Otto Jespersen, Growth and Structure of the English
Language (New York: Appleton-Century, 1923),
94.
الفصل السادس: التحدث والكتابة بلغة واحدة
(1)
Quoted in Carroll Barber, “Trilingualism in an Arizona
Yaqui Village,” in Paul Turner, ed., Bilingualism in the Southwest (Tucson: University of
Arizona Press, 1973), 305.
(2)
Olivier Todd, Carte
d’identités (Paris: Plon,
2005).
(3)
David Green, “Mental Control of the Bilingual
Lexico-Semantic System,” Bilingualism:
Language and Cognition 1 (1998): 67–81. François
Grosjean, “The Bilingual’s Language Modes,” in Janet Nicol, ed.,
One Mind, Two Languages: Bilingual
Language Processing (Oxford: Blackwell, 2001),
1–22.
(4)
Jubin Abutalebi and David Green, “Control Mechanisms in
Bilingual Language Production: Neural Evidence from Language
Switching Studies,” Language and Cognitive
Processes 23 (2008): 557–582.
(5)
In François Grosjean, “An Attempt to Isolate, and Then
Differentiate, Transfer and Interference,” International Journal of Bilingualism (forthcoming),
I suggest that we use the term “transfer” for static phenomena and
the term “interference” for dynamic phenomena. I also propose a way
of differentiating empirically between the
two.
(6)
Example from Einar Haugen, The
Norwegian Language in America: A Study in Bilingual
Behavior (Bloomington: Indiana University Press,
1969).
(7)
Nancy Huston, Losing North:
Musings on Land, Tongue and Self (Toronto: McArthur,
2002), 41.
(8)
Example from Ronald Sheen, “The Importance of Negative
Transfer in the Speech of Near Bilinguals,” International Review of Applied Linguistics 18
(1980): 105–119.
(9)
Examples from William Mackey, Bilinguisme et contact des langues (Paris: Editions
Klincksiek, 1976).
(10)
Uriel Weinreich, Languages in
Contact (The Hague: Mouton,
1968).
(11)
Paul Preston, Mother Father
Deaf (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press),
136-137. An experimental study by researchers Jennie Pyers and Karen
Emmorey showed that bilinguals reduced the number of times they
furrowed their eyebrows when they switched from a bilingual to a
monolingual mode, but they did not stop completely; the facial cue
still occurred one-third of the time when ASL-bilingual speakers
asked what-where-who-which questions in English of monolingual
English speakers. See Pyers and Emmorey, “The Face of Bimodal
Bilingualism: Grammatical Markers in American Sign Language Are
Produced When Bilinguals Speak to English Monolinguals,” Psychological Science 19 (2008):
531–535.
(12)
Huston, Losing
North, 27.
(13)
See, for example, Vivian Cook, Effects of the Second Language on the First
(Clevedon, U.K.: Multilingual Matters, 2003).
(14)
Eva Hoffman, Lost in
Translation (New York: Penguin, 1989),
273.
(15)
See, for example, François Grosjean, “The Bilingual as
a Competent but Specific Speaker-Hearer,” Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural
Development 6 (1985): 467–477.
(16)
Vivian Cook makes a similar argument. See, for
instance, Cook, “Evidence for Multicompetence,” Language Learning 42 (1992):
557–591.
الفصل السابع: امتلاك لُكْنة في إحدى اللغات
(1)
James Flege, “Factors Affecting Degree of Perceived
Foreign Accent in English,” Journal of the
Acoustical Society of America 84 (1988):
70–79.
(2)
Theo Bongaerts, Brigitte Planken, and Erik Schils, “Can
Late Starters Attain a Native Accent in a Foreign Language? A Test
of the Critical Period,” in David Singleton and Zsolt Lengyel, eds.,
The Age Factor in Second Language
Acquisition (Clevedon, U.K.: Multilingual Matters,
1995), 30–50.
(3)
Eva Hoffman, Lost in
Translation (New York: Penguin, 1989),
122.
(4)
James Bossard, “The Bilingual as a Person:
Linguistic Identification with Status,” American Sociological Review
10: 699–709; quotation on 705.
(5)
Nancy Huston and Leila Sebba, Lettres parisiennes (Paris: Editions J’ai Lu, 2006),
13.
(6)
Nancy Huston, Losing
North: Musings on Land, Tongue and Self
(Toronto: McArthur, 2002), 25.
(7)
Elizabeth K. Beaujour, Alien
Tongues: Bilingual Writers of the “First” Emigration
(Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1989),
73.
(8)
An anonymous reviewer kindly reminded me of this
aspect.
الفصل الثامن: تطوُّر اللغات عند الشخص الثنائي اللغة على مدى حياته
(1)
Linda Galloway, “Language Impairment and Recovery in
Polyglot Aphasia: A Case Study of a Hepta-Lingual,” in Michel
Paradis, ed., Aspects of
Bilingualism (Columbia, S.C.: Hornbeam, 1978),
121–130.
(2)
Nancy Huston and Leila Sebba, Lettres parisiennes (Paris: Editions J’ai Lu, 2006),
76.
(3)
Nancy Huston, Losing
North: Musings on Land, Tongue and Self
(Toronto: McArthur, 2002), 43.
(4)
See, for example, Robert Schrauf, “Bilingualism and
Aging,” in Jeanette Altarriba and Roberto Heredia, eds., An Introduction to Bilingualism: Principles and
Processes (New York: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2007),
105–127.
(5)
Ellen Bialystok, Michelle Martin, and Mythili
Viswanathan, “Bilingualism across the Lifespan: The Rise and Fall of
Inhibitory Control,” International Journal
of Bilingualism 9 (2005):
103–119.
(6)
Ellen Bialystok, Fergus Craik, and Morris Freedman,
“Bilingualism as a Protection against the Onset of Symptoms of
Dementia,” Neuropsychologia 45
(2007): 459–464.
الفصل التاسع: المواقف والمشاعر تجاه الثنائية اللغوية
(1)
Unless otherwise indicated, the testimonies in this
chapter are taken from François Grosjean, Life with Two Languages: An Introduction to
Bilingualism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1982).
(2)
Much of this discussion is based on two research
surveys, one conducted by Veroboj Vildomec—see Vildomec, Multilingualism (Leiden: A.W. Sythoff,
1963)—and the other by me, with results published in Grosjean,
Life with Two Languages. In
addition, I will use the results of a large public survey: European
Commission, Europeans and Their
Languages, Special Eurobarometer 243 (2006);
ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf.
(3)
Daily Telegraph, 6
February 2008, online at telegraph.co.uk; BBC, 14 December 2007,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/football/
international/7137847.stm.
(4)
Anatoliy Kharkhurin, “The Effect of Linguistic
Proficiency, Age of Second Language Acquisition, and Length of
Exposure to a New Cultural Environment on Bilinguals’ Divergent
Thinking,” Bilingualism: Language and
Cognition 11 (2008): 225–243.
(5)
European Commission, Europeans
and Their Languages.
(6)
Ibid., I.
(7)
Based on Grosjean, Life with
Two Languages.
(8)
Richard Rodriguez, Hunger of Memory: The Education of Richard
Rodriguez (New York: Bantam, 1983),
24-25.
(9)
Paul Preston, Mother
Father Deaf (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1995), 147.
(10)
Einar Haugen, “The Stigmata of Bilingualism,”
in Anwar Dil, ed., The Ecology of
Language: Essays by Einar Haugen (Stanford:
Stanford University Press, 1972), 307–324; quotation on
308.
(11)
Barry McLaughlin, Second-Language Acquisition in Childhood
(Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1978),
2-3.
(12)
Aneta Pavlenko, Emotions and
Multilingualism (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2005), 23.
الفصل العاشر: الثنائية الثقافية عند الأشخاص الثنائيي اللغة
(1)
Biculturalism has been studied much less than
bilingualism, and very few definitions of it are offered in the
literature. In Angela-MinhTu Nguyen and Verónica Benet-Martínez,
“Biculturalism Unpacked: Components, Measurement, Individual
Differences, and Outcomes,” Social and
Personality Psychology Compass 1 (2007): 101–114, the
authors describe bicultural individuals as those who have been
exposed to two cultures and have internalized them. They add that
biculturalism also entails the synthesis of cultural norms from two
groups into one behavioral repertoire, or the ability to switch
between cultural schemas, norms, and behaviors in response to
cultural cues. Thus, their description includes the three
characteristics that I have given here.
(2)
From François Grosjean, Life with Two Languages: An Introduction to
Bilingualism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1982), 166.
(3)
Nancy Huston, Losing
North: Musings on Land, Tongue and Self
(Toronto: McArthur, 2002), 70-71.
(4)
Paul Preston, Mother Father
Deaf (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1995), 136.
(5)
Grosjean, Life with Two
Languages, 159.
(6)
Personal communication.
(7)
To simplify things, I will refer to biculturals as
having just two cultures from now on, but everything said also
applies to people who belong to a greater number of
cultures.
(8)
John Berry, a social psychologist, uses the following
labels for the four possibilities mentioned here, respectively:
assimilation, separation, marginalization, and integration. See, for
example, John Berry, “Integration: A Psychological and Cultural
Perspective,” paper presented at the conference Conceptualising
Integration, organized by the Estonian Integration Foundation,
Tallinn, Estonia, 18-19 October 2007. One problem is that these
labels are based on immigration and the ensuing acculturation,
whereas people can and do become bicultural without actually moving
from one country to another.
(9)
Preston, Mother Father
Deaf, 199.
(10)
Olivier Todd, Carte
d’identités (Paris: Plon, 2005), my
translation.
(11)
Veronica Chambers, “The Secret Latina,”
Essence, July 2000;
www.veronicachambers.com/secret.html.
(12)
Teresa LaFromboise, Hardin Coleman, and Jennifer
Gerton, “Psychological Impact of Biculturalism: Evidence and
Theory,” Psychological Bulletin
114 (1993): 395–412.
(13)
Preston, Mother Father
Deaf, 228.
الفصل الحادي عشر: شخصية الأشخاص الثنائيي اللغة وأفكارهم وأحلامهم ومشاعرهم
(1)
ReutersLife newswire, “Switching Languages Can Also
Switch Personality: Study,” 24 June 2008;
www.reuters.com/article/
lifestyleMolt/idUSSP4652020080624.
(2)
Unless otherwise indicated, the testimonies in this
chapter are taken from François Grosjean, Life with Two Languages: An
Introduction to Bilingualism (Cambridge, Mass.:
Harvard University Press, 1982).
(3)
Robert Di Pietro, “Code-Switching as a Verbal Strategy
among Bilinguals,” in Fred Eckman, ed., Current Themes in Linguistics: Bilingualism, Experimental
Linguistics, and Language
Typologies (Washington, D.C.: Hemisphere Publishing,
1977), 3–13.
(4)
Charles Gallagher, “North African Problems and
Prospects: Language and Identity,”
in Joshua Fishman, Charles Ferguson, and Jyotirindra Das Gupta,
eds., Language Problems in Developing
Nations (New York: Wiley, 1968),
129–150.
(5)
Susan Ervin, “Language and TAT Content in Bilinguals,”
Journal of Abnormal and Social
Psychology 68 (1964): 500–507.
(6)
Susan Ervin, “An Analysis of the Interaction of
Language, Topic, and Listener,” in John Gumperz and Dell Hymes,
eds., The Ethnography of
Communication, special issue of American Anthropologist 66, Part 2
(1964): 86–102.
(7)
David Luna, Torsten Ringberg, and Laura Peracchio, “One
Individual, Two Identities: Frame Switching among Biculturals,”
Journal of Consumer Research
35 (2008): 279–293.
(8)
Grosjean, Life with Two
Languages.
(9)
Ervin, “Language and TAT Content,”
506.
(10)
Grosjean, Life with Two
Languages.
(11)
Personal communication. Aneta Pavlenko is currently
doing research on these issues. I wish to thank her for discussing
them with me.
(12)
Veroboj Vildomec, Multilingualism (Leiden: A.W. Sythoff,
1963).
(13)
Aneta Pavlenko, Emotions and Multilingualism (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2005),
227.
(14)
Aneta Pavlenko, “Bilingualism and Emotions,” Multilingua 21 (2002):
45–78.
(15)
Monika Schmid, First Language
Attrition, Use and Maintenance: The Case of German Jews in
Anglophone Countries (Amsterdam: John Benjamins,
2002).
(16)
Nancy Huston and Leila Sebba, Lettres parisiennes (Paris: Editions J’ai Lu,
2006).
(17)
Nancy Huston, Losing
North: Musings on Land, Tongue and Self
(Toronto: McArthur, 2002), 49-50.
(18)
Pavlenko, Emotions and
Multilingualism, 147.
(19)
Paul Preston, Mother Father
Deaf (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,
1995), 136.
(20)
Huston and Sebba, Lettres
parisiennes, 138.
(21)
Pavlenko, Emotions and
Multilingualism,
22-23.
الفصل الثاني عشر: الكُتَّاب الثنائيو اللغة
(1)
Frederick R. Karl, Joseph Conrad (New York: Farrar, Straus and
Giroux, 1979), quotation on 697.
(2)
With one or two exceptions I give book titles in
English, for readers’ convenience. Other out-of-the-ordinary authors
who write fiction in their second or third language include André
Aciman, Ha Jin, Andreï Makine, Dai Sijie, Ahdaf Soueif, and Xu Xi. I
owe this information to Elizabeth Beaujour (who was a great help
when I was preparing this chapter), as well as to an anonymous
reviewer.
(3)
Elizabeth Beaujour, Alien
Tongues: Bilingual Russian Writers of the “First”
Emigration (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press,
1989), 174. Another book that is often cited on this subject is
Steven G. Kellman, The Translingual
Imagination (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press,
2000).
(4)
Beaujour, Alien
Tongues, 52, 62.
(5)
Ariel Dorfman, “Footnotes to a Double Life,” in
Wendy Lesser, ed., The Genius of
Language: Fifteen Writers Reflect on Their Mother
Tongues (New York: Pantheon, 2004),
208.
(6)
Beaujour, Alien
Tongues, 64, 114.
(7)
Ibid., 66, 95.
(8)
Jane Sullivan (interview with Nancy Huston),
“The Trouble with Cultural Dislocation,” Sydney Morning Herald,
22 September 2007;
www.SMH.com.au/news/books/the-trouble-with-culturaldislocation.
(9)
Nancy Huston, Losing
North: Musings on Land, Tongue and Self
(Toronto: McArthur, 2002), 37-38.
(10)
Gerry Feehily, “Biography—Nancy Huston: A View from
Both Sides,” Independent, 22
February 2008;
www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/features/biography--nancy-huston.
(11)
Sullivan (interview with Huston), “The Trouble with
Cultural Dislocation.” Huston, Losing
North, 39.
(12)
Beaujour, Alien
Tongues, 111.
(13)
Quoted from Junot Díaz, “The Brief Wondrous
Life of Oscar Wao,” New
Yorker, 25 December 2000, an excerpt from
the book, available online at
www.newyorker.com/archive; see also
Junot Díaz, The Brief Wondrous
Life of Oscar Wao (New York: Riverhead
Books, 2007), 17.
(14)
Susana Chávez-Silverman, “Flora y Fauna
Crónica,” in Killer Crónicas:
Bilingual Memories (Madison: University
of Wisconsin Press, 2004), 5.
(15)
In addition to the authors mentioned already,
several others have written, or write, in their two or more
languages, including: André Brink (Afrikaans, English),
Ariel Dorfman (Spanish, English), Claude Esteban (Spanish,
French), Romain Gary (French, English), Julien Green
(French, English), Milan Kundera (Czech, French), Jonathan
Littell (English, French), John Milton (Latin, Greek,
Italian, English). My thanks to Elizabeth Beaujour for
supplying much of this information, and also to John K. Hale
for the information on John Milton. Beaujour’s remark about
bilingual writers is taken from the syllabus for Professor
Beaujour’s City University of New York Graduate Center
course, Bilingual/Polyglot Writers.
الفصل الثالث عشر: الثنائيو اللغة المميزون
(1)
Of course, sign language interpreters also change
modality, going from an oral language to a sign language or vice
versa.
(2)
Personal communication.
(3)
George Millar, Maquis: The
French Resistance at War (London: Cassell,
1945).
(4)
Sarah Helm, A Life in Secrets:
The Story of Vera Atkins and the Lost Agents of SOE
(London: Abacus, 2006).
الجزء الثاني: الأطفال الثنائيو اللغة
الفصل الرابع عشر: اكتساب الثنائية اللغوية والتحوُّل عنها
(1)
Werner Leopold, Speech
Development in a Bilingual Child (New York: AMS
Press, 1970).
(2)
From François Grosjean, Life with Two Languages: An Introduction to
Bilingualism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1982), 177.
(3)
From R. Andersson, “Philosophical Perspectives
on Bilingual Education,” in Bernard Spolsky and Robert
Cooper, eds., Frontiers of Bilingual
Education (Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House,
1977); reprinted in Grosjean, Life
with Two Languages,
177.
(4)
Carroll Barber, “Trilingualism in an Arizona Yaqui
village,” in Paul Turner, ed., Bilingualism
in the Southwest (Tucson: University of Arizona
Press, 1973), 295–318.
(5)
Mohamed Abdulaziz-Mkilifi, “Triglossia and
Swahili-English Bilingualism in Tanzania,” in Joshua Fishman, ed.,
Advances in the Study of Societal
Multilingualism (The Hague: Mouton, 1978),
129–152.
(6)
Marie-Paule Maurer, “Létitia, d’origine portugaise,
à l’école luxembourgeoise,” Education et
Sociétés Plurilingues 24 (2008):
81–92.
(7)
Eva Hoffman, Lost in
Translation (New York: Penguin, 1989),
104-105.
(8)
Robbins Burling, “Language Development of a Garo and
English Speaking Child,” in Evelyn Hatch, ed., Second Language Acquisition (Rowley,
Mass.: Newbury House, 1978).
(9)
Ibid., 74.
(10)
The case of Stephen makes one think of President Barack
Obama, who spent four years in Indonesia between the ages of six and
ten. He attended a local school and had Indonesian friends. He
became relatively fluent in Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia) but
stopped using it with anyone when he returned to the United States,
with the exception of his half sister. It is said that he can still
hold a general conversation in Indonesian.
(11)
Lily Wong Fillmore, “Loss of Family Languages:
Should Educators Be Concerned?” Theory into Practice 39 (2000): 203–210;
quotation on 205.
(12)
Annick De Houwer, Two or More
Languages in Early Childhood: Some General Points and Practical
Recommendations (Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied
Linguistics, 1999).
(13)
Ibid.
(14)
Grosjean, Life with Two
Languages, 106.
(15)
Ibid., 15. Even though this testimony is not
recent, things have not changed since
then.
(16)
Richard Rodriguez, Hunger of Memory: The Education of Richard
Rodriguez (New York: Bantam, 1983),
29.
الفصل الخامس عشر: اكتساب لغتين
(1)
Unfortunately, no good statistics exist on this point.
Barbara Zurer Pearson and Sylvia Fernández report that among the
Hispanic population in Miami, between 6 percent and 15 percent of
bilinguals had learned their two languages from birth. Pearson and
Fernández, “Patterns of Interaction in the Lexical Growth in Two
Languages of Bilingual Infants and Toddlers,” Language Learning 44 (1994):
617–653.
(2)
D. Kimbrough Oller et al., “Development of Precursors
to Speech in Infants Exposed to Two Languages,” Journal of Child Language 24 (1997):
407–425.
(3)
See, for example, Tracey Burns et al., “The Development
of Phonetic Representation in Bilingual and Monolingual Infants,”
Applied Psycholinguistics 28
(2007): 455–474.
(4)
Laura Bosch and Núria Sebastián-Gallés, “Simultaneous
Bilingualism and the Perception of a Language-Specific Vowel
Contrast in the First Year of Life,” Language and Speech 46 (2003):
217–243.
(5)
Anna-Beth Doyle, Mireille Champagne, and Norman
Segalowitz report that the average child’s age for speaking the
first word, as recalled by mothers, is 11.2 months for bilinguals
and 11.6 for monolinguals. Doyle, Champagne, and
Segalowitz, “Some Issues
in the Assessment of Linguistic Consequences of Early Bilingualism,”
in Michel Paradis, ed., Aspects of
Bilingualism (Columbia, S.C.: Hornbeam, 1978),
13–20.
(6)
Personal communication, 13 March 2008. I thank Barbara
Zurer Pearson for this information. Her recent book deals at length
with the issues discussed; see Barbara Zurer Pearson, Raising a Bilingual Child (New York:
Random House, 2008).
(7)
Pearson and Fernández, “Patterns of
Interaction.”
(8)
Werner Leopold, Speech
Development in a Bilingual Child (New York: AMS
Press, 1970).
(9)
Virginia Volterra and Traute Taeschner, “The
Acquisition and Development of Language by Bilingual Children,”
Journal of Child Language 5
(1978): 311–326.
(10)
Coral Bergman, “Interference vs. Independent
Development in Infant Bilingualism,” in Gary Keller, Richard
Teschner, and Silva Viera, eds., Bilingualism in the Bicentennial and Beyond
(New York: Bilingual Press/Editorial Bilingüe, 1976), 86–96;
quotation on 88.
(11)
Jürgen Meisel, “The Bilingual Child,” in Tej Bhatia and
William Ritchie, eds., The Handbook of
Bilingualism (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004),
91–113.
(12)
Virginia Yip and Stephen Matthews, The Bilingual Child: Early Development and
Language Contact (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2007).
(13)
Barry McLaughlin, Myths and
Misconceptions about Second Language Learning: What Every
Teacher Needs to Unlearn (Washington, D.C.: Center
for Applied Linguistics, 1993).
(14)
Catherine Snow and Marianne Hoefnagel-Hohle, “The
Critical Period for Language Acquisition: Evidence from Second
Language Learning,” Child
Development 49 (1978):
1114–1128.
(15)
Note that many of these factors also hold for adults,
with the exception of school, of course, and family to some extent.
It is clear that additional aspects also play a role where adults
are concerned.
(16)
Lily Wong Fillmore, “Second-Language Learning in
Children: A Model of Language Learning in Context,” in Ellen
Bialystok, ed., Language Processing in
Bilingual Children (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1991), 49–69.
(17)
Lily Wong Fillmore, “The Second Time Around: Cognitive
and Social Strategies in Second-Language Acquisition,” Ph.D. diss.,
Stanford University, 1976.
(18)
Ibid.
(19)
Ibid.
(20)
Jim Cummins, “BICS and CALP: Empirical and Theoretical
Status of the Distinction,” in Brian Street and Nancy Hornberger,
eds., Encyclopedia of Language and
Education, vol. 2: Literacy (New York: Springer Science, 2008),
71–83.
(21)
Jim Cummins, “Promoting Literacy in Multilingual
Contexts,” What Works? Research into
Practice, Research Monograph no. 5, Literacy and
Numeracy Secretariat, Ontario (June 2007), 1–4. I will come back to
these questions, notably that of biliteracy, in Chapter 19. A
complete review of the literacy question can be found in Diane
August and Timothy Shanahan, eds., Developing Literacy in Second-Language Learners: Report of the
National Literacy Panel on Language Minority Children and
Youth (Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum,
2006).
الفصل السادس عشر: الجوانب اللغوية للثنائية اللغوية لدى الأطفال
(1)
Melania Mikeš, “Acquisition des catégories
grammaticales dans le langage de l’enfant,” Enfance 20 (1967): 289–298.
(2)
Marilyn Vihman, “The Acquisition of Morphology by
a Bilingual Child: A Whole-Word Approach,” paper presented at the
Fifth Annual Conference on Language Development, Boston University,
1980.
(3)
Robbins Burling, “Language Development of a Garo and
English Speaking Child,” in Evelyn Hatch, ed., Second Language Acquisition (Rowley,
Mass.: Newbury House, 1978).
(4)
Paul Kinzel, Lexical and
Grammatical Interference in the Speech of a Bilingual
Child (Seattle: University of Washington Press,
1964).
(5)
Alvino Fantini, “Bilingual Behavior and Social Cues:
Case Studies of Two Bilingual Children,” in Michel Paradis, ed.,
Aspects of Bilingualism
(Columbia, S.C.: Hornbeam, 1978), 283–301.
(6)
Elizabeth Lanza, “Can Bilingual Two-Year-Olds
Code-Switch?” Journal of Child
Language 19 (1992): 633–658.
(7)
Erica McClure, “Aspects of Code-Switching in the
Discourse of Bilingual Mexican-American Children,” Technical Report
no. 44, Center for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois at
Urbana-Champaign, 1977.
(8)
Cristina Banfi, “Translation and the Bilingual Child,”
Bilingual Family Newsletter
25 (2008): 1–6.
(9)
Fred Genesee, Elena Nicoladis, and Johanne Paradis,
“Language Differentiation in Early Bilingual Development,” Journal of Child Language 22 (1995):
611–631.
(10)
Brian Harris and Bianca Sherwood, “Translating as an
Innate Skill,” in David Gerver and H. Wallace Sinaiko, eds.,
Language Interpretation and
Communication (New York: Plenum, 1978),
155–170.
(11)
Ibid.
(12)
François Grosjean, Life
with Two Languages: An Introduction to
Bilingualism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1982), 201.
(13)
Paul Preston, Mother
Father Deaf (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1995), 86.
(14)
Ibid., 145.
(15)
Ibid., 165.
(16)
Marguerite Malakoff and Kenji Hakuta, “Translation
Skill and Metalinguistic Awareness in Bilinguals,” in Ellen
Bialystok, ed., Language Processing in
Bilingual Children (New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1991), 141–166.
(17)
Guadalupe Valdés, Expanding
Definitions of Giftedness: The Case of Young Interpreters from
Immigrant Communities (Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence
Erlbaum, 2003).
(18)
Fantini, “Bilingual Behavior and Social
Cues.”
(19)
Yves Gentilhomme, “Expérience autobiographique d’un
sujet bilingue Russe-Français: Prolégomènes théoriques,” paper
presented at the Third International Conference on Languages in
Contact, Justus-Liebig University, Giessen, Germany,
1980.
(20)
Banfi, “Translation and the Bilingual
Child.”
الفصل السابع عشر: الأسرة والأطفال الثنائيو اللغة
(1)
Einar Haugen, “The Stigmata of Bilingualism,”
in Anwar Dil, ed., The Ecology of
Language: Essays by Einar Haugen (Stanford:
Stanford University Press, 1972), 307–324; quotation on
307.
(2)
Annick De Houwer, “Parental Language Input Patterns and
Children’s Bilingual Use,” Applied
Psycholinguistics 28 (2007):
411–424.
(3)
François Grosjean, Life
with Two Languages: An Introduction to
Bilingualism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1982), 171.
(4)
Susanne Döpke, “Raising Children Bilingually:
Some Suggestions for Parents” (1996); this article is
available online at www.bilingualoptions.com.au;
quotation on 2.
(5)
Richard Rodriguez, Hunger of
Memory: The Education of Richard Rodriguez (New York:
Bantam Books, 1983).
(6)
Ray Castro, “Shifting the Burden of
Bilingualism: The Case for Monolingual Communities,”
Bilingual Review/La Revista
Bilingüe 3 (1976): 3–28; quotations on 5,
8.
(7)
Grosjean, Life with Two
Languages, 163.
(8)
Stephen Caldas and Suzanne Caron-Caldas, “A
Sociolinguistic Analysis of the Language Preferences of Adolescent
Bilinguals: Shifting Allegiances and Developing Identities,”
Applied Linguistics 23
(2002): 490–514.
(9)
Nancy Huston, Losing North:
Musings on Land, Tongue and Self (Toronto: McArthur,
2002), 58.
الفصل الثامن عشر: تأثير الثنائية اللغوية على الأطفال
(1)
Simon S. Laurie, Lectures on Language and Linguistic Method in the
School (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1890), 15.
(2)
Otto Jespersen, Language (London: Allen and Unwin, 1922),
148.
(3)
David Saer, “The Effect of Bilingualism on
Intelligence,” British Journal of
Psychology 14 (1923):
25–38. W. Jones and W.
Stewart, “Bilingualism and Verbal Intelligence,” British Journal of Psychology 4 (1951):
3–8. Natalie Darcy, “The Effect of Bilingualism upon the Measurement
of the Intelligence of Children of Preschool Age,” Journal of Educational Psychology 37
(1946): 21–44.
(4)
Einar Haugen, “The Stigmata of Bilingualism,”
in Anwar Dil, ed., The Ecology of
Language: Essays by Einar Haugen (Stanford:
Stanford University Press, 1972), 307–324; quotation on
307.
(5)
Elizabeth Peal and Wallace Lambert, “The Relation of
Bilingualism to Intelligence,” Psychological
Monographs 76, no. 27 (1962):
1–23.
(6)
Merrill Swain and Jim Cummins, “Bilingualism, Cognitive
Functioning and Education,” Language
Teaching and Linguistics: Abstracts 12 (1979):
4–18.
(7)
G. L. MacNab, “Cognition and Bilingualism: A Reanalysis
of Studies,” Linguistics 17
(1979): 231–255.
(8)
Swain and Cummins, “Bilingualism, Cognitive Functioning
and Education.”
(9)
Barry McLaughlin, Second-Language Acquisition in Childhood (Hillsdale,
N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1978), quotation on
206.
(10)
I wish to thank Ellen Bialystok for her guidance
through this rather complex field.
(11)
Ellen Bialystok and Lili Senman, “Executive Processes
in Appearance-Reality Tasks: The Role of Inhibition of Attention and
Symbolic Representation,” Child
Development 75 (2004):
562–579.
(12)
Ellen Bialystok, Michelle Martin, and Mythili
Viswanathan, “Bilingualism across the Lifespan: The Rise and Fall of
Inhibitory Control,” International Journal
of Bilingualism 9 (2005):
103–119.
(13)
Ellen Bialystok, “Metalinguistic Aspects of Bilingual
Processing,” Annual Review of Applied
Linguistics 21 (2001):
169–181.
(14)
Ibid.
(15)
Ellen Bialystok and Xiaojia Feng, “Language Proficiency
and Its Implications for Monolingual and Bilingual Children,” in A.
Durgunoglu, ed., Challenges for Language
Learners in Language and Literacy (New York:
Guilford, forthcoming).
(16)
Ibid.
(17)
Susanne Döpke, “Understanding Bilingualism and
Language Disorder” (2006); this article is available online
at
www.bilingualoptions.com.au.
(18)
Johanne Paradis et al., “French-English Bilingual
Children with SLI: How Do They Compare with Their Monolingual
Peers?” Journal of Speech, Language, and
Hearing Research 46 (2003):
113–127.
(19)
Johanne Paradis, “Bilingual Children with Specific
Language Impairment: Theoretical and Applied Issues,” Applied Psycholinguistics 28 (2007):
551–564.
الفصل التاسع عشر: الثنائية اللغوية والتعليم
(1)
UNESCO Universal
Declaration on Cultural Diversity (Paris: UNESCO,
2002), objective no. 6, p. 15.
(2)
Jim Cummins, “Promoting Literacy in Multilingual
Contexts,” What Works? Research into
Practice, Research Monograph no. 5, Literacy and
Numeracy Secretariat, Ontario (June 2007),
1–4.
(3)
Quoted in François Grosjean, Life with Two Languages: An Introduction
to Bilingualism (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 1982), 209.
(4)
Jacques Levy, Cesar
Chavez: Autobiography of La Causa (New York:
Norton, 1975), 24.
(5)
Grosjean, Life with Two
Languages, 211.
(6)
Cummins, “Promoting Literacy.”
(7)
Richard Rodriguez, Hunger of Memory: The Education of Richard
Rodriguez (New York: Bantam Books, 1983),
28.
(8)
Lily Wong Fillmore, “English Learners and Mathematics
Learning: Language Issues to Consider,” in Alan H. Schoenfeld, ed.,
Assessing Mathematical
Proficiency (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
2007), 333–344.
(9)
Maria Brisk, “Bilingual Education,” in Bernard Spolsky,
ed., Concise Encyclopedia of Educational
Linguistics (Oxford: Pergamon, 1999),
311–315.
(10)
I realize that it is not always possible for schools to
promote bilingualism in the school language and another language
that may be quite rare, especially without the appropriate resources
(funds, teachers, educational materials, and so on). That said, it
is important to review the ways in which some schools do foster
bilingualism among their students, because encouraging the learning
and use of languages (publicly and privately) does seem to be the
road that lies ahead, at least in many parts of our world.
Interested readers may want to refer to Colin Baker, Foundations of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism (Clevedon, U.K.: Multilingual Matters,
2006).
(11)
Michael Krauss, “The Condition of Native North American
Languages: The Need for Realistic Assessment and Action,” International Journal of the Sociology of
Language 132 (1998): 9–21.
(12)
Teresa McCarty, “Revitalising Indigenous Languages in
Homogenising Times,” Comparative
Education 39 (2003): 147–163.
(13)
Wayne Holm, “The ‘Goodness’ of Bilingual
Education for Native American Children,” in Teresa McCarty
and Ofelia Zepeda, eds., One Voice,
Many Voices: Recreating Indigenous Language
Communities (Tempe and Tucson: Arizona State
University Center for Indian Education and University of
Arizona American Indian Language Development Institute,
2006), 1–46; quotation on 41-42.
(14)
Some of this information comes from Professor Maria
Brisk, and my thanks go to her; for more information, see the Amigos
School Web page,
www.cpsd.us/AMI.
(15)
Cheryl Dressler and Michael Kamil, “First-and
Second-Language Literacy,” in Diane August and Timothy Shanahan,
eds., Developing Literacy in Second-Language
Learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language
Minority Children and Youth (Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence
Erlbaum, 2006), 197–238. I wish to thank Timothy Shanahan for making
the report available to me and for answering my
questions.
(16)
For more on biliteracy, see Ellen Bialystok, Gigi Luk,
and Ernest Kwan, “Bilingualism, Biliteracy, and Learning to Read:
Interactions among Languages and Writing Systems,” Scientific Studies of Reading 9 (2005):
43–61.
(17)
The European Schools, which cater to the children of
European Union officials as well as local children, represent
another model of education favoring bilingualism and
multilingualism. According to Alex Housen, in 2002 some 17,000
children, representing fifty nationalities and more than thirty
different languages, were enrolled in the ten schools spread across
the European Union; see Housen, “Processes and Outcomes in the
European Schools Model of Multilingual Education,” Bilingual Research Journal 26 (2002):
45–64.
