ملاحظات
مقدمة
(1) “To
wrest from nature”: William
Osler, “Chauvinism in Medicine,” Montreal Medical
Journal 1902; 31(9): 684–699.
Italics added by author. Osler was one of the
most influential physicians in modern
history. He was a founding professor of the
Johns Hopkins Hospital, helped establish
internal medicine as an academic discipline,
and launched the first medical residency
training program.
(2) average life
expectancy: Charles Kenny,
The Plague Cycle:
The Unending War Between Humanity and
Infectious Disease (New York:
Scribner, 2021),
145-146.
(2) today average worldwide
longevity … 73.4 years:
World Health Organization, “Global Health
Estimates: Life Expectancy and Healthy Life
Expectancy,”
https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/themes/mortality-and-global-health-estimates/ghe-life-expectancy-and-healthy-life-expectancy,
accessed June 25,
2022.
(2) 77.8 in the United
States: Elizabeth Arias,
Betzaida Tejada-Vera, and Farida Ahmad,
“Provisional Life Expectancy Estimates for
January Through June, 2020,” National Center for Health
Statistics 2021, Report No.
010, February 2021. This figure averages the
life expectancies of men, at 75.1 years, and
women, at 80.5 years.
(2) conquer death due to
disease: Yuval Harari,
Homo Deus: A
Brief History of Tomorrow (New
York: Harper Collins, 2017),
21–29.
الفصل الأول: مرض القلب
(6) tingling sensation: Dick
Cheney, In My Time: A
Personal and Political Memoir
(New York: Threshold Editions, 2011),
119.
(6) His physician
prescribed: Dick Cheney and
Jonathan Reiner, Heart: An American Medical
Odyssey (New York: Scribner,
2013), 27, 36. This book written by Cheney
and his cardiologist was the main source for
this brief retelling of Cheney’s medical
journey. It is an excellent account of how
the vice president benefited from numerous
advances in
cardiology.
(6) stopped smoking:
Richard Cheney, “Reflections of a Former Vice
President on
Long-time Cardiac Experiences,” Baylor Medical Center
Proceedings 2009; 22(3):
276-278.
(6) 50 percent
narrowing: Cheney, Heart,
58.
(7) second, mild heart
attack: Ibid.,
69.
(7) clot in his RCA:
Ibid.,
76-77.
(7) “no functional
limitations”: Ibid.,
103.
(8) performed an
angioplasty: Cheney, In My Time,
292.
(8) implantable
cardioverter-defibrillator:
Ibid., 524.
(8) blacked out:
Cheney, Heart,
225.
(9) 222 beats per
minute: Ibid.,
241.
(10) called his
daughter: Ibid.,
280.
(10) twenty months:
Ibid., 309.
(11) 25 percent:
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention,
“Heart Disease Facts,” September 27, 2021,
https://www.cdc.gov/heartdisease/facts.htm,
accessed June 26,
2022.
(13) He postulated:
James Herrick, “Clinical Features of Sudden
Obstruction of Coronary Arteries,” Journal of the American
Medical Association 1912; 59:
2015–2020; Richard Ross, “A Parlous State of
Storm and Stress: The Life and Times of James
B. Herrick,” Circulation 1983; 67(5):
955–959.
(13) “It fell like a
dud”: James Herrick, “An
Intimate Account of My Early Experience with
Coronary Thrombosis,” American Heart Journal 1944;
27(1): 1–18.
(14) “I cannot
possibly”: Werner Forssmann,
Experiments on
Myself: Memoirs of a Surgeon in
Germany, trans. Hilary Davies
(New York: St. Martin’s, 1974), 83–85. The
quotations presented in this recounting of
Forssmann’s story come from this portion of
his autobiography, which was first published
in Germany in 1972.
(16) The X-ray
showed: Werner Forssmann, “The
Catheterization of the Right Side of the
Heart,” Wiener
Klinische Wochenschrift 1929;
8: 2085–2087.
(16) eight more
times: Lawrence Altman,
“Daring Experiment Aided Heart Care,”
New York
Times, July 10, 1979,
C3.
(17) On October 30,
1958: David Monagan and David
Williams, Journey
into the Heart: A Tale of Pioneering
Doctors and Their Race to Transform
Cardiovascular Medicine (New
York: Gotham Books, 2007),
36-37.
(17) under fire from:
Forssmann, Experiments on,
250.
(17) like a village
pastor: Felix Belair, “3 Win
Nobel Prize for Heart Study,” New York Times,
October 19, 1956, 1, 8. Subsection of article
contributed by United Press under heading
“Forssmann Hails
Americans.”
(18) “We’ve killed
him!”: Thomas Ryan, “The
Coronary Angiogram and Its Seminal
Contribution,” Circulation 2002; 106:
752–756.
(18) “When the injection
began”: William Sheldon, “F.
Mason Sones, Jr.–Stormy Petrel of
Cardiology,” Clinical
Cardiology 1994; 17:
405–407.
(18) “After three or four
explosive”: Ibid.,
406.
(19) “Again?”:
Monagan, Journey
into,
37.
(19) President Dwight D.
Eisenhower: Thomas Lee,
“Seizing the Teachable Moment—Lessons from
Eisenhower’s Heart Attack,” New England Journal of
Medicine 2020; 383:
e100(1)–e100(3); Robert Gilbert,
“Eisenhower’s 1955 Heart Attack: Medical
Treatment, Political Effects, and the ‘Behind
the Scenes’ Leadership Style,” Politics and the Life
Sciences 2008; 27(1):
2–21.
(20) 30 to 40
percent: Thomas Lee and Lee
Goldman, “The Coronary Care Unit Turns 25:
Historical Trends and Future Directions,”
Annals of
Internal Medicine 1988; 108:
887–894.
(20) inadvertently
opened: Richard Mueller and
Timothy Sanborn, “The History of
Interventional Cardiology: Cardiac
Catheterization, Angioplasty, and Related
Interventions,” American Heart Journal 1995;
129(1): 146–172.
(20) first insert the
smallest: Charles Dotter and
Melvin Judkins, “Transluminal Treatment of
Arteriosclerotic Obstruction: Description of
a New Technique and a Preliminary Report of
Its Application,” Circulation 1964; 30:
654–670.
(20) eighty-two-year-old
diabetic: Ibid.,
657-658.
(21) “I’ve been standing
here”: Misty Payne, “Charles
Theodore Dotter: The Father of Intervention,”
Texas Heart
Institute Journal 2001; 28(1):
28–38.
(21) “Visualize but do
not”: Charles Dotter,
“Transluminal Angioplasty: A Long View,”
Radiology 1980; 135(3):
561–564.
(21) climbed Mount
Hood’s: Payne, “Charles
Theodore Dotter,” 31.
(22) experimenting with
ways: Monagan, Journey into,
90–92.
(22) “a sausage-shaped
distensible”: Spencer King,
“Angioplasty from Bench to Bedside to Bench,”
Circulation 1996; 93(9):
1621–1629.
(22) polyvinyl
chloride: Matthias Barton,
Johannes Grüntzig, Marc Husmann, et al.,
“Balloon Angioplasty—The Legacy of Andreas
Grüntzig, M.D. (1939–1985),” Frontiers in Cardiovascular
Medicine 2014; 1:
1–25.
(22) In 1974, he
performed: Ibid., 8; Alfred
Bollinger and Maria Schlumpf, “The Beginning
of Balloon Conception and Application in
Peripheral Arterial Disease,” Journal of Invasive
Cardiology 2008; 20(3):
E85–E87.
(23) poster
displaying: Monagan, Journey into,
111-112; King, “Angioplasty from,”
1623.
(23) Dr. Richard
Myler: James Forrester,
The Heart
Healers: The Misfits, Mavericks, and
Rebels Who Created the Greatest Medical
Breakthrough of Our Lives (New
York: St. Martin’s, 2015),
225.
(23) Adolf Bachmann:
Monagan, Journey
into,
123–129.
(24) “To the surprise of us
all”: Spencer King, “The
Development of Interventional Cardiology,”
Journal of the
American College of Cardiology
1998; 31(4 Suppl B):
64B–88B.
(24) spontaneous round of
applause: Ibid.,
67B.
(27) “A surgeon who”:
G. Wayne Miller, King
of Hearts: The True Story of the Maverick
Who Pioneered Open Heart
Surgery (New York: Times
Books, 2000), 51.
(27) “Surgery of the
heart”: Stephen Paget,
The Surgery of
the Chest (Bristol, UK: John
Wright & Co., 1896),
121.
(27) In September
1896: Forrester, The Heart
Healers,
28–30.
(27) “He was deathly
pale”: James Blatchford,
“Ludwig Rehn: The First Successful
Cardiorrhaphy,” Annals of Thoracic Surgery
1985; 39(5): 492–495.
(28) “The sight of the
heart”: Ibid.,
494.
(28) even introduced
him: Orla Werner, Christian
Sohns, Aron Popov, et al., “Ludwig Rehn
(1849–1930): The German Surgeon Who Performed
the Worldwide First Successful Cardiac
Operation,” Journal
of Medical Biography 2012; 20:
32–34.
(29) Dwight Harken:
Forrester, The Heart
Healers,
25–28.
(30) “The only moment of
panic”: Ibid.,
33.
(30) removed metal
fragments: Dwight Harken and
Paul Zoll, “Foreign Bodies in and in Relation
to the Thoracic Blood Vessels and Heart,”
American Heart
Journal 1946; 32(1):
1–19.
(32) Walter Stockton:
Forrester, The Heart
Healers,
41-42.
(32) “The purse-string
suture”: Charles Bailey, “The
Surgical Treatment of Mitral Stenosis (Mitral
Commissurotomy),” Diseases of the Chest 1949;
15(4): 377–393.
(32) “backward cutting
punch”: Ibid.,
386.
(32) “It is my Christian
duty”: David Cooper, Open Heart: The Radical
Surgeons Who Revolutionized
Medicine (New York: Kaplan,
2010), 74.
(33) “the Butcher”:
Kevin Fong, Extreme
Medicine: How Exploration
Transformed
Medicine in the Twentieth
Century (New York: Penguin,
2012), 88.
(33) to schedule two
operations: Bailey, The Surgical
Treatment, 388–390; Forrester,
The Heart
Healers,
44–46.
(34) successfully performed
mitral valve: Dwight Harken,
Laurence Ellis, Paul Ware, et al., “The
Surgical Treatment of Mitral Stenosis: I.
Valvuloplasty,” New
England Journal of Medicine
1948; 239(22):
801–809.
(34) “Dear Dr.
Harken”: Forrester, The Heart
Healers,
53.
(35) He tried using monkey
lungs: Ibid.,
56-57.
(35) tried this on
dogs: Ibid., 63–65. Lillehei’s
full name was Clarence Walton
Lillehei.
(36) Gregory Glidden:
Miller, King of
Hearts,
128–139.
(36) Pamela Schmidt:
Ibid., 141–143.
(36) “Queen of
Hearts”: Ibid.,
158.
(36) series of seven
cases: Ibid.,
151-152.
(36) the child’s mother
suffered: Ibid., 157-158. In
total, forty-five operations were completed
employing cross-circulation; twenty-eight of
the patients survived. The longest time a
patient’s circulation was maintained by the
parent-donor was forty minutes. See also
Cooper, Open
Heart,
190.
(37) as a research
fellow: John Gibbon,
“Development of the Artificial Heart and Lung
Extracorporeal Blood Circuit,” Journal of the American
Medical Association 1968;
206(9): 1983–1986.
(37) “During that long
night”: Ibid.,
1983.
(38) built a prototype
machine: John Gibbon, “The
Maintenance of Life During Experimental
Occlusion of the Pulmonary Artery Followed by
Survival,” Surgery,
Gynecology and Obstetrics
1939; 69: 602–614.
(38) Watson learned
about: John Gibbon, “The
Development of the Heart-Lung Apparatus,”
Review of
Surgery 1970; 27(4):
231–244.
(38) cascading down a
series: Mark Kurusz, “May 6,
1953: The Untold Story,” ASAIO Journal
2012; 58(1): 2–5.
(38) May 6, 1953:
John Gibbon, “Application of a Mechanical
Heart and Lung Apparatus to Cardiac Surgery,”
Minnesota
Medicine 1954; 37(3): 171–177;
John Gibbon, “The Development of the Heart-
Lung Apparatus,” American Journal of Surgery
1978; 135: 608–619; Cooper, Open Heart,
152.
(39) Dr. René
Favaloro: Faisal Bakaeen,
Eugene Blackstone, Gosta Pettersson, et al.,
“The Father of Coronary Artery Bypass
Grafting: René Favaloro and the 50th
Anniversary of Coronary Artery Bypass
Grafting,” Journal of
Thoracic and Cardiovascular
Surgery 2018; 155(6):
2324–2327.
(40) Shumway and his
colleague: Forrester,
The Heart
Healers, 171-172; Cheney,
Heart,
287-288.
(41) debate in
America: Forrester, The Heart
Healers,
176.
(41) Louis
Washkansky: Christiaan Barnard
and Curtis Pepper, One Life (Toronto: Macmillan,
1969), 304-305.
(41) a patient was
deemed: Forrester, The Heart
Healers, 174-175; Raymond
Hoffenberg, “Christiaan Barnard: His First
Transplants and Their Impact on Concepts of
Death,” British
Medical Journal 2001; 323:
1478–1480. In his autobiography (and
thereafter) Barnard stated that he waited for
the donor heart to stop beating before
opening the chest to remove the heart, but in
another account given by his brother Marius,
also a surgeon who was present at the
history-making operation, Barnard removed the
heart while it was still beating. If this is
true, it can be assumed that Barnard wished
to avoid criticism, both ethically and
perhaps legally, for removing a beating
heart. See also Cooper, Open Heart,
334.
(41) “Inserting my
hand”: Barnard, One Life,
371-372.
(42) Barnard restarted
it: Christiaan Barnard, “The
Operation. A Human Cardiac Transplant: An
Interim Report of a Successful Operation
Performed at Groote Schuur Hospital, Cape
Town,” South African
Medical Journal 1967: 41(48):
1271–1274.
(42) “Dit lyk of dit gaan
werk!”: Barnard, One Life,
378-379.
(42) “Eyes over
masks”: Ibid.,
379.
(42) second transplant
patient: David Cooper,
“Christian Barnard—the Surgeon Who Dared: The
Story of the First Human-to-Human Heart
Transplant,” Global
Cardiology Science and
Practice 2018:
1–16.
(43) first combined
heart-lung: Robert Robbins,
“Norman E. Shumway,” Clinical Cardiology 2000; 23:
462–466.
(43) about 3,800:
United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS), 2021
Data,
https://unos.org/data/transplant-trends/,
accessed June 29,
2022.
(43) about 805,000
Americans: Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, “Heart Disease
Facts.”
(43) improving cardiac
function: Konstantinos
Malliaras, Raj Makkar, Rachel Smith, et al.,
“Intracoronary Cardiosphere-Derived Cells
After Myocardial Infarction: Evidence of
Therapeutic Regeneration in the Final 1-Year
Results of the CADUCEUS Trial,” Journal of the American
College of Cardiology 2014;
63(2): 110–122.
(44) In 2008, scientists
decellularized: Harald Ott,
Thomas Matthiesen, Saik-Kia Goh, et al.,
“Perfusion-decellularized Matrix: Using
Nature’s Platform to Engineer a Bioartificial
Heart,” Nature
Medicine 2008; 14(2):
213–221.
(44) to produce functional
cardiac tissue: Jacques
Guyette, Jonathan
Charest, Robert
Mills, et al., “Bioengineering Human
Myocardium on Native Extracellular Matrix,”
Circulation
Research 2016; 118(1):
56–72.
الفصل الثاني: داء السكري
(46) Elizabeth Hughes: Caroline
Cox, The Fight to
Survive: A Young Girl, Diabetes, and the
Discovery of Insulin (New
York: Kaplan, 2009),
ix–xvii.
(46) seventy-five to
sixty-five:
Ibid.,1.
(47) 750 calories:
Ibid., 40.
(47) one egg for
breakfast: Thea Cooper and
Arthur Ainsberg. Breakthrough:
Elizabeth Hughes, the Discovery of
Insulin, and the Making of a Medical
Miracle (New York: St.
Martin’s, 2010), 80. Cox and Cooper’s books
are engaging reads that relate far more
detail about Elizabeth Hughes’s remarkable
medical journey.
(48) dropped to fifty-two
pounds: Ibid.,
108.
(50) Around the fifth
century: Marianna Karamanou,
Athanase Protogerou, Gregory Tsoucalas, et
al., “Milestones in the History of Diabetes
Mellitus: The Main Contributors,” World Journal of
Diabetes 2016; 7(1):
1–7.
(50) “pissing evil”:
Ibid., 3.
(51) because deceased
patients: Michael Bliss,
The Discovery of
Insulin (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1982), 25. I and anyone
interested in the history of insulin’s
discovery are deeply indebted to Canadian
historian and author Michael Bliss, whose
1982 classic remains the definitive account
of the saga.
(52) Some did try
this: Ibid.,
28–33.
(52) Dr. Frederick
Banting: Ibid., 45–48;
Frederick Banting, The Story of the Discovery of
Insulin (Unpublished
manuscript, 1940), F. G. Banting Papers,
Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, University
of Toronto; Box 1, Folders 9–13: 67–77,
95–99. Henceforth documents from the Banting
Collection at the University of Toronto will
be referred to as “Banting
Papers.”
(52) Banting served
as: Seale Harris, Banting’s Miracle: The
Story of the Discoverer of
Insulin (Philadelphia:
Lippincott, 1946),
28–32.
(53) October 30,
1920: Banting, The Story of,
89; Bliss, The
Discovery, 48-49. The article
Banting read was authored by Dr. Moses Barron
and published in the journal Surgery, Gynecology and
Obstetrics. Barron had
published in this journal because
lithiasis—the formation of a stone in the
body such as the one he had found in the
pancreatic duct—was germane to the practice
of surgery.
(53) For Banting, this
article: Banting, The Story of,
91–95.
(53) “Diabetus”:
Frederick Banting, “Note dated Oct 31/20 from
loose leaf notebook 1920/21,” Banting Papers;
Folder 1.
(54) did not impress
Macleod: Bliss, The Discovery,
52.
(54) how to best
prepare: Frederick Banting and
Charles Best, “The Internal Secretion of the
Pancreas,” Journal of
Laboratory and Clinical
Medicine 1922; 7(5):
251–266.
(54) to 0.12 percent:
Ibid., 255.
(55) “stand &
walk”: Bliss, The Discovery,
68–70.
(55) one to three dollars
each: Ibid.,
61.
(56) “I scarcely
know”: Frederick Banting, “F.
G. Banting’s Draft of Letter to J. R. R.
Macleod, August 9, 1921,” Banting Papers; Box
62, Folder 2a, 1–5.
(56) “no possibility of
mistake”: J. R. R. Macleod,
“Letter to F. G. Banting, August 23, 1921,”
Banting Papers; Box 62, Folder 4,
1–4.
(56) “excellent
condition”: Bliss, The Discovery,
75.
(56) “I have seen patients
die”: Banting, The Story of,
189.
(56) asked Macleod
for: Bliss, The Discovery,
82.
(57) “I told him
that”: Frederick Banting, “F.
G. Banting: Account of the Discovery of
Insulin,” Banting Papers; Box 37, Folder 2,
4.
(57) “began to
froth”: Bliss, The Discovery,
83.
(57) In his view: J.
R. R. Macleod, “Letter to Col. Gooderham:
History of the Researches Leading to the
Discovery of Insulin, Sept. 20, 1922,” J. B.
Collip Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book
Library, University of Toronto; Box 37,
Folder 3: 3-4, 9-10.
(58) Physiological Journal
Club: Bliss, The Discovery,
90-91.
(59) “students were
talking”: Banting, “F. G.
Banting: Account of,”
5.
(59) “Had I been
told”: J. R. R. Macleod,
“Letter to Col. Gooderham,”
11.
(59) newborn or fetal
animals: Frederick Banting and
Charles Best, “Pancreatic Extracts,”
Journal of
Laboratory and Clinical
Medicine 1922; 7:
464–472.
(60) “Banting asked
me”: Macleod, “Letter to Col.
Gooderham,” 12.
(60) initially suggested by
Macleod: Ibid.,
9.
(60) The dog’s blood
sugar: Banting, “F. G.
Banting: Account of,”
5.
(61) performed an important
experiment: Bliss, The Discovery,
102-103. 62 December
30, 1921: Ibid.,
104–108.
(62) “When I was called
upon”: Banting, The Story of,
200.
(63) “I did not sleep a
wink”: Ibid.,
200-201.
(63) Banting now
wanted: Bliss, The Discovery,
111.
(63) Leonard
Thompson: Frederick Banting,
Charles Best, James Collip, et al.,
“Pancreatic Extracts in the Treatment of
Diabetes Mellitus,” Canadian Medical Association
Journal 1922; 2: 141–146;
Bliss, The
Discovery,
112-113.
(64) 440 mg/dL to
324: “Patient Records for
Leonard Thompson,” Banting Papers, Box 8B,
Folder 17B.
(64) “I experienced
then”: Bliss, The Discovery,
117.
(64) “The worst blow
fell”: Banting, The Story of,
210-211.
(65) “announced to
me”: Charles Best, “Letter to
Sir Henry Dale, February 22, 1954,” Feasby
Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library,
University of Toronto; Box 3, Folder 5,
4-5.
(65) far more
effective: Banting,
“Pancreatic Extracts,”
144-145.
(65) Clowes eventually
convinced: Cooper, Breakthrough,
166–173.
(66) “My daughter”:
Antoinette Hughes, “Letter to Dr. Frederick
Banting, July 3, 1922,” Banting Papers; Box
8A, Folder 26A, 2-3,
6.
(66) “wt 45 lbs.”:
Frederick Banting, “Notes on First
Examination of Elizabeth Hughes,” Banting
Papers; Box 8A, Folder 25A,
3.
(67) first slice of white
bread: Bliss, The Discovery,
154.
(67) “I can’t express
my”: Elizabeth Hughes, “Letter
to Mother and Father, September 24, 1922,”
Hughes (Elizabeth) Papers, Thomas Fisher Rare
Book Library, University of Toronto; Box 1,
Folder 36, 5-6.
(67) “Oh, it is simply too
wonderful”: Elizabeth Hughes,
“Letter to Mumsey, October 1, 1922,” Hughes
(Elizabeth) Papers; Box 1, Folder 39,
4.
(67) “Dr. Allen said with his
mouth”: Elizabeth Hughes,
“Letter to Mother, November 28, 1922,” Hughes
(Elizabeth) Papers; Box 1, Folder 53,
4.
(67) “By Christmas of
1922”: Bliss, The Discovery,
164. The first ten verses of Ezekiel, chapter
thirty-seven, describe the prophet in a
valley filled with dry bones that God
resurrects into a great host of
men.
(68) “A man carried his
wife”: Banting, The Story of,
304–308.
(70) $10,000:
George Ross, “Letter to Prime Minister
Mackenzie King, May 8, 1923,” Banting Papers,
Box 1, Folder 29, 1.
(70) $7,500:
W. L. Mackenzie King, “Letter to F. G.
Banting, Esq., July 23, 1923,” Banting
Papers; Box 62, Folder 25,
2.
(70) enormous sums:
Banting, The Story
of,
263–268.
(71) Canadian National Research
Council: James Collip,
“Recollections of Sir Frederick Banting,”
Canadian Medical
Association Journal 1942;
47(5): 401–403.
(71) February 20,
1941: Harris, Banting’s
Miracle,
221–230.
(71) fiancé did not
learn: Cooper, Breakthrough,
239.
(71) 42,000 lifesaving
insulin: Ibid.,
244.
(72) 34 percent concordance
rate: Jaakko Kaprio, Jaakko
Tuomilehto, Markku Koskenvuo, et al.,
“Concordance for Type 1 (Insulin-Dependent)
and Type 2 (Non-Insulin-Dependent) Diabetes
in a Population-Based Cohort of Twins in
Finland,” Diabetologia 1992; 35(11):
1060–1067. Probandwise concordance rate
reported.
(72) 80 to 90
percent: Roch Nianogo and
Onyebuchi Arah, “Forecasting Obesity and Type
2 Diabetes Incidence and Burden: The
ViLA-Obesity Simulation Model,” Frontiers in Public
Health 2022; 10(818816):
1–13.
(72) 422 million
people: World Health
Organization, “Diabetes,”
https://www.who.int/health-topics/diabetes,
accessed July 2, 2022.
(72) 37.3 million
Americans: Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, “The Facts, Stats,
and Impacts of Diabetes,”
https://www.cdc.gov/diabetes/library/features/diabetes-stat-report.html,
accessed July 2, 2022.
(72) eighth leading
cause: Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, “Leading Causes of
Death,”
https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/leading-causes-of-death.htm,
accessed July 2, 2022.
(72) about ninety-six
million: Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, “The Facts,
Stats.”
(72) up to 70
percent: Adam Tabak, Christian
Herder, Wolfgang Rathmann, et al.,
“Prediabetes: A High- Risk State for
Developing Diabetes,” Lancet 2012; 379(9833):
2279–2290.
(73) eight thousand
pounds: Siddhartha Mukherjee.
The Gene: An
Intimate History. (New York:
Scribner, 2016), 239.
(74) In November
2021: Gina Kolkata, “A Cure
for Severe Diabetes? For an Ohio Patient, It
Worked,” New York
Times, November 28, 2021,
1.
الفصل الثالث: العدوى البكتيرية
(75) seventy-seven deaths: Jez
Gale, “Southampton Blitz—City Remembers on
75th Anniversary,” The Southern Daily Echo
(Southampton, UK), November 30,
2015.
(75) Albert
Alexander: Bill Sullivan,
“Guns, Not Roses—Here’s the True Story of
Penicillin’s First Patient,” The
Conversation, March 11, 2022,
https://theconversation.com/guns-not-roses-heres-the-true-story-of-penicillins-first-patient-178463,
accessed July 3, 2022; Penny Schwartz, “Local
Artists Share Childhood Bond,” The Press
Enterprise (Riverside, CA),
November 2, 2012. Although many prior
accounts of Albert Alexander’s injury
perpetuated a myth that he cut his face on a
rose thorn working in his garden, interviews
with Alexander’s daughter, Sheila LeBlanc, in
the 2010s confirmed that the injury occurred
during the bombing raid in
Southampton.
(76) The doctors
cultured: Edward Abraham,
Ernst Chain, Charles
Fletcher, et al.,
“Further Observations on Penicillin,”
Lancet
1941; 238(6155):
177–189.
(77) “a thousand times
smaller”: Eric Lax, The Mold in Dr. Florey’s
Coat (New York: Henry Holt
& Co., 2004), 4. Lax’s comprehensive
retelling of the entire penicillin story is
an excellent resource for anyone interested
in delving deeper into the
saga.
(77) “All the
people”: Elmer Bendiner, “The
Man Who Did Not Invent the Microscope,”
Hospital
Practice, August 1984:
168.
(78) 5 ×
1030, gram
of soil: William Rosen,
Miracle Cure: The
Creation of Antibiotics and the Birth of
Modern Medicine (New York:
Viking, 2017), 24.
(78) Contagionists
believed: Lindsey Fitzharris,
The Butchering
Art: Joseph Lister’s Quest to Transform
the Grisly World of Victorian
Medicine (New York: Scientific
American/Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2017),
53-54.
(79) Even cases that:
Ibid., 153.
(80) Florence
Nightingale: Jeannette
Farrell, Invisible
Enemies: Stories of Infectious
Diseases (New York: Farrar,
Straus and Giroux, 1998),
173-174.
(80) Max von
Pettenkofer: Ibid.,
189.
(80) a brewer:
Patrice Debré, Louis
Pasteur, trans. Elborg Forster
(Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press,
1998), 87.
(81) These
microorganisms: Thomas Goetz,
The Remedy:
Robert Koch, Arthur Conan Doyle, and the
Quest to Cure Tuberculosis
(New York: Gotham Books 2014),
58.
(81) designed an
experiment: René Dubos,
Louis Pasteur:
Free Lance of Science (Boston:
Little, Brown, 1950),
169-170.
(81) France’s silkworm
trade: Goetz, The Remedy,
59.
(82) This highly contagious
disease: Debré, Louis Pasteur,
302-303.
(82) Using his
microscope: Steve Blevins and
Michael Bronze, “Robert Koch and the ‘Golden
Age’ of Bacteriology,” International Journal of
Infectious Diseases 2010; 14:
744–751; Goetz, The
Remedy,
23–29.
(83) Koch had
isolated: K. Codell Carter,
trans., Essays of
Robert Koch (New York:
Greenwood Press, 1987), 1–17. Carter’s book
is an invaluable resource—an English
translation of Koch’s most important academic
articles.
(83) he was filled with
self-doubt: Thomas Brock,
Robert Koch: A
Life in Medicine and
Bacteriology (Washington,
D.C.: ASM Press, 1999), 36–38. Microbiologist
Dr. Thomas Brock translated much of Robert
Koch’s correspondence and academic papers.
His book was the first English-language
biography of Koch.
(83) “I had been
receiving”: Hubert Lechevalier
and Morris Solotorovsky, Three Centuries of
Microbiology (New York: McGraw
Hill, 1965), 69.
(83) at 1 a.m.:
Brock, Robert
Koch,
44-45.
(84) “Within the very first
hour”: Lechevalier, Three Centuries
of, 69.
(84) “I consider
this”: Carter, Essays of Robert
Koch,
xiv.
(84) “My experiments
were”: Brock, Robert Koch,
45.
(85) “Every one of my
works”: Louise Robbins,
Louis Pasteur and
the Hidden World of Microbes
(New York; Oxford University Press, 2001),
63.
(85) Pasteur
isolated: Debré, Louis Pasteur,
343-344.
(85) commonly told
version: Bernard Dixon, “The
Hundred Years of Louis Pasteur,” New Scientist,
October 2, 1980,
30–32.
(86) old, stale culture
fluid: Debré, Louis Pasteur,
379; Lechavalier, Three Centuries of, 52–54;
Louis Pasteur, “Sur les Maladies Virulentes
et en Particulier Su la Maladie Appelée
Vulgairement Choléra des Poules,” Comptes Rendus de
l’Académie des Sciences 1880;
90: 239–248. (“On Virulent Diseases and
Particularly on the Disease Commonly Called
Fowl Cholera”)
(86) On May 5, 1881:
Louis Pasteur, “Summary Report of the
Experiments Conducted at Pouilly-le-Fort,
Near Melun, on the Anthrax Vaccination,”
trans. Tina Dasgupta, Yale Journal of Biology and
Medicine 2002; 75:
59–62.
(87) 9.01 percent to 0.65
percent: André Eyquem, “One
Century After Louis Pasteur’s Victory Against
Rabies,” American
Journal of Reproductive
Immunology 1986; 10: 132–134.
Pasteur has generally received the credit for
developing the anthrax vaccine; but, in
truth, a veterinarian named Jean Joseph Henri
Toussaint actually did it first a year
before, creating a heat-attenuated vaccine.
Still, it was Pasteur’s improvement of the
vaccine and public demonstration that led to
its widespread
adoption.
(87) numerous methodological
improvements: Alex Sakula,
“Robert Koch: Centenary of the Discovery of
the Tubercle Bacillus, 1882,” Thorax 1982; 37:
246–251.
(87) one-quarter of
deaths: Goetz, The Remedy,
x.
(89) “the most
important”: Clifford Pickover,
The Medical
Book (New York: Sterling
Publishing, 2012),
228.
(89) For the crowd’s
perusal: Brock, Robert Koch,
128.
(89) “If the number”:
Carter, Essays of
Robert Koch,
83.
(89) “The color
contrast”: Ibid.,
84.
(89) “All who were
present”: Ibid.,
xvi.
(90) Pasteur complimented
him: Brock, Robert Koch,
116.
(90) Two of Koch’s
assistants: Blevins, “Robert
Koch and the ‘Golden Age,’” 746; Wolfgang
Hesse, “Walther and Angelina Hesse—Early
Contributors to Bacteriology,” trans. Dieter
Gröschel, American
Society for Microbiology News
1992; 58(8): 425–428.
(90) “The assumptions from
which”: Carter, Essays of Robert
Koch,
64.
(90) “Only a few of
Pasteur’s”: Ibid.,
65-67.
(90) When a
translation: Blevins, “Robert
Koch and the ‘Golden Age,’”
748.
(91) The animal
demonstration: Debré,
Louis
Pasteur,
406-407.
(91) “Yet however blazingly
clear”: Ibid.,
407-408.
(91) a fuming Koch:
H. H. Mollaret, “Contribution to the
Knowledge of Relations Between Koch and
Pasteur,” trans. E. T. Cohn, B. H.
Fasciotto-Dunn, U. Kuhn, et al. NTM-Schriftenr. Gesch.
Naturwiss, Technik, Med,
Leipzig 1983; 20(1),
S57–65.
(91) “When I saw in the
program”: Brock, Robert Koch,
174.
(91) “recueil
allemande”: Mollaret, “Contribution to
the Knowledge,” S57–65; Goetz, The Remedy,
77-78.
(92) “Koch acted
ridiculous”, “It was a
triumph”: Brock, Robert Koch,
174-175.
(92) “I was anxious to
hear”: Carter, Essays of Robert
Koch,
97–115.
(92) “You do not
acknowledge”: Debré, Louis Pasteur,
408.
(92) “You ascribe to me
errors”: Goetz, The Remedy,
77.
(93) In August 1883, a cholera
outbreak: Lechevalier,
Three Centuries
of,
144–146.
(93) There, from a
twenty-two-year-old man:
Brock, Robert
Koch,
159-160.
(94) he sought to weaken
it: Leonard Hoenig, “Triumph
and Controversy: Pasteur’s Preventative
Treatment of Rabies as Reported in JAMA.”
Archives of
Neurology 1986; 43:
397–399.
(94) He then devised:
Dubos, Louis
Pasteur,
334.
(95) Pasteur’s vaccination
method: Louis Pasteur,
“Prevention of Rabies,” in The Founders of Modern
Medicine, edited by Elie
Metchnikoff (Freeport, NY: Books for
Libraries Press, 1939), 379–387; Dubos,
Louis
Pasteur,
335-336.
(95) nineteen
Russians: Debré, Louis Pasteur,
445-446.
(95) By October 1886:
Eyquem, “One Century After Louis Pasteur’s,”
132. Pasteur was not without his critics.
Various contemporaries and historians accused
him of deceit (purposely keeping his methods
secret to prevent others from using them),
taking credit for the ideas of others (such
as Toussaint), and unethical behavior (e.g.,
using the rabies vaccine on humans before
adequate testing). However, the wider view of
Pasteur’s contributions reveals him to be an
undeniably brilliant man of science who
played a crucial role in the adoption of the
germ theory.
(96) “lymph”: Thomas
Daniel, “Robert Koch, Tuberculosis, and the
Subsequent History of Medicine,” American Review of
Respiratory Disease 1982;
125(3): 1.
(96) the disease in guinea
pigs: Christoph Gradmann,
“Robert Koch and the White Death: From
Tuberculosis to Tuberculin,” Microbes and
Infection 2006; 8:
297–299.
(96) numerous
physicians: B. Lee Ligon,
“Robert Koch: Nobel Laureate and
Controversial Figure in Tuberculin Research,”
Seminars in
Pediatric Infectious Diseases
2002; 13(4): 295–297.
(98) The first children
saved: John Gravenstein,
“Toxoid Vaccines,” in Vaccines: A Biography (New
York: Springer 2010),
107.
(99) “Number 606”:
Rosen, Miracle
Cure, 55. It has commonly been
stated that the compound was named “606”
because it was the 606th compound devised and
tested, but this is inaccurate. In Ehrlich’s
organizational system, the first digit
specified a unique compound under
investigation, and the following digits
denoted variations of that compound. So
salvarsan was simply the sixth version of
what had been classified as the “sixth”
compound.
(99) “salvarsan”:
Robert Schwartz, “Paul Ehrlich’s Magic
Bullets,” New England
Journal of Medicine 2004;
350(11): 1079-1080. There were, however,
limits to salvarsan’s effectiveness. It
contained arsenic, and this conferred a
degree of toxicity that limited how often it
could be given. It was also difficult to
administer; a single dose of powdered
salvarsan had to be highly diluted—dissolved
in 600 ml of fluid. Receiving this massive
bolus was a difficult experience for patients
to endure. See also Rosen, Miracle Cure,
58.
(100) “He was not a
conversationalist”: Lax,
The
Mold,
8.
(100) growth had been
inhibited: Gwyn MacFarlane,
Alexander
Fleming: The Man and the Myth
(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
1984), 99–101.
(101) in the range of forty to
fifty: V. D. Allison,
“Personal Recollections of Sir Almroth Wright
and Sir Alexander Fleming,” Ulster Medical
Journal 1974; 43(2):
89–98.
(101) “That’s funny”:
Frank Diggins, “The True History of the
Discovery of Penicillin by Alexander Fleming,
with Refutation of the Misinformation in the
Literature,” British
Journal of Biomedical Science
1999; 56: 83–93.
(102) The more likely
source: Ronald Hare, The Birth of Penicillin,
and the Disarming of Microbes
(London; George Allen & Unwin, 1970),
84.
(102) the London
weather: Ibid.,
76–79.
(103) In a petri dish:
Alexander Fleming, “On the Antibacterial
Action of Cultures of a Penicillium, with
Special Reference to Their Use in the
Isolation of B.
influenzae.” British Journal of
Experimental Pathology 1929;
10, 226–236.
(103) He gave a
presentation: B. Lee Ligon,
“Penicillin: Its Discovery and Early
Development,” Seminars in Pediatric Infectious
Diseases 2004; 15(1):
52–57.
(103) He thought it might be
useful: Gwyn MacFarlane,
Howard Florey:
The Making of a Great
Scientist (London: Oxford
University Press, 1979),
189.
(103) Second, he wrote a
paper: Fleming, “On the
Antibacterial Action,”
226–236.
(105) “a temperamental
Continental”: Ronald Clark,
Ernst Chain:
Penicillin and Beyond (New
York: St. Martin’s, 1985),
1.
(105) Florey and Chain
developed: Lax, The Mold,
66-67.
(105) Chain came
across: Clark, Ernst Chain,
33.
(105) Margaret
Campbell-Renton: Ronald
Bentley, “Leslie A. (Epstein) Falk
(1915–2004) and Penicillin Production at
Oxford,” Journal of
Medical Biography 2007; 15:
93.
(105) Unfortunately, Heatley
bristled: Lax, The Mold,
102.
(106) invited Heatley to stay
on: MacFarlane, Howard Florey,
302-303.
(106) He experimented by
adding: Lax, The Mold,
101.
(106) “I obtained …”:
Clark, Ernst
Chain,
43.
(107) drops of urine:
Lax, The
Mold,
113.
(107) Even when
penicillin: Ibid.,
115.
(107) “It looks quite
promising”: MacFarlane,
Alexander
Fleming,
175-176.
(107) These experiments were
reported: Ernst Chain, Howard
Florey, Arthur Gardner, et al., “Penicillin
as a Chemotherapeutic Agent,” Lancet 1940;
Aug: 226–231.
(107) To Florey’s
chagrin: Lax, The Mold,
139.
(108) Yet the prospect of
losing: Norman Heatley, “In
Memoriam, H. W. Florey: An Episode,”
Journal of
General Microbiology 1970; 61:
297.
(109) sending their two
children: MacFarlane,
Howard
Florey,
320–321.
(109) “striking
improvement”: Abraham,
“Further Observations,” 185. Alexander was
not actually the first human patient to
receive penicillin. Unbeknownst to Florey, a
New York physician named Martin Henry Dawson
had read the Oxford team’s Lancet article
and prepared his own penicillin, also from
one of Fleming’s original mold samples that
had been sent to another American doctor in
the mid-1930s. Dawson injected penicillin in
a patient with bacterial endocarditis four
months before constable Alexander received
it. Dawson’s patient died, but he was
heartened by the lack of toxicity in this
first, human test. See also Lennard Bickel,
Rise Up to Life:
A Biography of Howard Walter Florey Who
Made Penicillin and Gave It to the
World (New York: Charles
Scribner’s Sons, 1972),
124–126.
(110) “This is the sort
of”: Lax, The Mold,
155.
(110) “P-patrol”:
Bickel, Rise Up to
Life, 122. There were also
other members of the Oxford team, including:
Edward Abraham, Arthur Gardner, Arthur Gordon
Sanders, Jean Orr-Ewing, Mary Ethel Florey
(Howard Florey’s wife), and Margaret Jennings
(whom Florey married after Mary Ethel’s
death). See also Robert Bud, Penicillin: Triumph and
Tragedy (New York: Oxford
University Press 2007),
30.
(110) The case of another
patient: MacFarlane, Alexander
Fleming, 185; Abraham,
“Further Observations,”
185-186.
(110) Three and a half
weeks: Abraham, “Further
Observations,”
177–189.
(110) in order to
convince: MacFarlane,
Alexander
Fleming,
177.
(111) “This project
…”: Lax, The
Mold,
159.
(111) not to share
samples: Clark, Ernst Chain,
66.
(111) to Japan via
submarine: Ibid.,
68.
(112) “I left the room
silently”:
Ibid.
(113) “I saw a whole
tremendous”: Ibid.,
57.
(113) Chain also
argued: MacFarlane, Alexander
Fleming,
206.
(113) “It is quite
clear”: Clark, Ernst Chain,
115.
(114) “The Professor
spun”: Lax, The Mold,
174.
(114) One of the first
innovations: Ligon,
“Penicillin,” 55.
(114) lab member Mary
Hunt: MacFarlane, Alexander
Fleming,
211.
(114) six times more:
Ligon, “Penicillin,” 55-56. The Peoria team
ultimately tested about 1,000 mold samples
over a five-year period, hoping to find the
best penicillin-producing mold. Of these,
only Fleming’s penicillium notatum, the
Peoria team’s cantaloupe mold, and one other
mold were found to emit significant amounts
of penicillin. The impossibly low odds that
one of these rare species would find its way
to a culture plate in Alexander Fleming’s lab
truly elevates the story of penicillin to one
of the most serendipitous occurrences in the
history of humankind.
(115) “a carpet bag
salesman”: MacFarlane,
Howard
Florey,
341.
(115) the support of Dr. Alfred
Newton Richards: Lax,
The
Mold, 186-187; Kevin Brown,
Penicillin Man:
Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic
Revolution (Gloucestershire,
UK: Sutton Publishing, 2004),
173-174.
(115) Florey
published: Mary Ethel Florey
and Howard Florey, “General and Local
Administration of Penicillin,” Lancet 1943; 1:
387–397.
(115) By 1944,
twenty-two: Clark, Ernst Chain,
74.
(115) paying
royalties: Lax, The Mold, 251;
Bernard Dichek, “The Chain Reaction,”
Jerusalem
Post, January 22,
2013.
(116) “with my old
penicillin”: Bickel, Rise Up to Life,
110.
(116) They even gave
Fleming: Lax, The Mold,
144.
(116) Fleming called
Florey: Bickel, Rise Up to Life,
166–168.
(117) “Sir, In the leading
article”: MacFarlane,
Alexander
Fleming,
198.
(117) Fleming appeared to
enjoy: Ligon, “Penicillin,”
56.
(117) It was not uncommon
for: MacFarlane, Howard Florey,
350-351.
(117) title of a New
York Times: Associated Press, “Fleming and
Two Co-workers Get Nobel Award for Penicillin
Boom,” New York
Times, October 26, 1945,
21.
(118) Time magazine:Time, May
15, 1944, cover.
(118) started a fund:
Lax, The
Mold,
232.
(119) “I have now quite good
evidence”: Howard Florey,
“Letter to Sir Henry Dale, December 11,
1942,” Royal Society,
HF/1/3/4/3/1.
(119) “It has long been a
source”: Howard Florey,
“Letter to E. Mellanby, June 19, 1944,” Royal
Society,
HF/1/3/2/18/107.
(120) Author Eric Lax:
Lax, The
Mold,
251.
(121) As early as
1940: Edward Abraham and Ernst
Chain, “An Enzyme from Bacteria Able to
Destroy Penicillin. 1940,” Review of Infectious
Diseases 1988; 10(4):
677-678.
(121) “educate them
to”: Alexander Fleming,
“Penicillin: Nobel Lecture, December 11,
1945,” Nobelprize.org, 93,
www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1945/fleming/lecture,
accessed July 6, 2022.
(121) more than 80
percent: Mariya Lobanovska and
Giulia Pilla, “Penicillin’s Discovery and
Antibiotic Resistance: Lessons for the
Future?” Yale Journal
of Biology and Medicine 2017;
90: 135–145.
(121) 2.8 million
Americans: Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, “Biggest Threats and
Data,” 2019 AR
Threats Report,
https://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/index.html,
accessed July 6, 2022.
(122) One study of antibiotic
prescriptions: Katherine
Fleming-Dutra, Adam Hersh, Daniel Shapiro, et
al. “Prevalence of Inappropriate Antibiotic
Prescriptions Among US Ambulatory Care Visits
2010-2011,” Journal
of the American Medical
Association 2016; 315(17):
1864–1873.
(122) 70 percent of
antibiotics: Food and Drug
Administration, “2015 Summary Report on
Antimicrobials Sold or Distributed for Use in
Food-Producing Animals,” December 2016,
https://www.fda.gov/media/102160/download,
accessed July 6, 2022.
(124) the GAIN Act did
not: Jonathan Darrow and Aaron
Kesselheim, “Incentivizing Antibiotic
Development: Why Isn’t the Generating
Antibiotic Incentives Now (GAIN) Act
Working?” Open Forum
Infectious Diseases 2020;
7(1): 1–3.
(124) genetically engineered
bacteria: Lobanovska,
“Penicillin’s Discovery,”
142.
(124) some metals
have: Elena Sanchez-Lopez,
Daniela Gomes, Gerard Esteruelas Bonilla, et
al., “Metal- Based Nanoparticles as
Antimicrobial Agents: An Overview,” Nanomaterials
2020; 10(2): 292.
(124) To describe phage
therapy: Dmitriy Myelnikov,
“An Alternative Cure: The Adoption and
Survival of Bacteriophage Therapy in the
USSR: 1922–1955,” Journal of the History of Medicine and
Allied Sciences 2018; 73(4):
385–411.
الفصل الرابع: العدوى الفيروسية
(126) In
October 1952: Nina Seavey,
Jane Smith, and Paul Wagner, A Paralyzing Fear: The
Triumph Over Polio in America
(New York: TV Books, 1998), 253–265. Arvid
Schwartz and his medical history are profiled
in Seavey’s book, and in a 1998 film
documentary of the same
name.
(127) Completely
helpless: Daniel Wilson,
Living with
Polio: The Epidemic and Its
Survivors (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 2005),
46-47.
(129) A child who was
unable: Jeffrey Kluger,
Splendid
Solution: Jonas Salk and the Conquest of
Polio (New York; G. P.
Putnam’s Sons, 2004),
2.
(129) 72,000 stray
cats: Seavey, A Paralyzing
Fear,
21.
(130) The death rate rose as high
as: Wilson, Living with
Polio,
46.
(131) It had to be
infectious: Charlotte Jacobs,
Jonas Salk: A
Life (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2015),
67.
(131) “We failed
utterly”: Simon Flexner and
Paul Lewis, “The Nature of the Virus of
Epidemic Poliomyelitis,” Journal of the American
Medical Association 1909;
53(25): 2095.
(132) 27,000 cases:
Joseph Melnick, “Current Status of Poliovirus
Infections,” Clinical
Microbiology Reviews 1996;
9(3): 293–300.
(132) In New York City
alone: David Oshinsky,
Polio: An
American Story (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2005), 22. Oshinsky’s book
provides an excellent and comprehensive
account of the quest to defeat
polio—recommended for anyone who wishes to
delve deeper into the
topic.
(132) A 1955 survey:
Joe Coffey, “History Happenings: Before
COVID-19 Came Polio and, Finally, a Vaccine,”
The
Gazette (Cedar Rapids, IA),
April 20, 2021.
(132) the steam yacht
Pocantico: James Tobin, The Man He Became: How FDR
Defied Polio to Win the
Presidency (New York: Simon
& Schuster, 2013),
15–17.
(133) “regular,
old-fashioned”: Ibid., 29. 133
On August 10,
1921: Ibid.,
47–51.
(133) uniquely poised to
contract: Oshinsky, Polio,
27.
(134) Each summer approximately
75,000: Tobin, The Man He
Became,
28-29.
(134) so much
buoyancy: Oshinsky, Polio,
37.
(134) $200000,
approximately two-thirds of his
fortune: Jacobs, Jonas Salk,
70.
(135) Far more children
died: Oshinsky, Polio,
5.
(135) found in a Chinese
book: Arthur Boylston, “The
Origins of Inoculation,” Journal of the Royal
Society of Medicine 2012;
105(7): 309–313.
(135) China since the tenth
century: Simon Winchester,
The Man Who Loved
China: The Fantastic Story of the
Eccentric Scientist Who Unlocked the
Mysteries of the Middle
Kingdom (New York: Harper,
2008), 276.
(136) killed 400,000 people
worldwide: Paul Offit,
The Cutter
Incident: How America’s First Polio
Vaccine Led to the Growing Vaccine
Crisis (New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press, 2005),
12.
(136) The first
Westerner: Andrew Artenstein,
“Smallpox,” in Vaccines: A Biography (New
York: Springer 2010),
11–13.
(137) “I shall never have
smallpox”: Stefan Riedel,
“Edward Jenner and the History of Smallpox
and Vaccination,” Baylor University Medical Center
Proceedings 2005; 18:
21–25.
(137) Jenner gradually
collected: Alfredo Morabia,
“Edward Jenner’s 1798 Report of Challenge
Experiments Demonstrating the Protective
Effects of Cowpox Against Smallpox,”
Journal of the
Royal Society of Medicine
2018; 111(7): 255–257.
(137) In May 1796:
Kendall Smith, “Edward Jenner and the Small
Pox Virus,” Frontiers
in Immunology 2011; 2(21):
1–6. Though Jenner deserves credit for
investigating and promoting vaccination, he
was not the first to vaccinate for smallpox
using cowpox. Unbeknownst to him, an English
farmer named Benjamin Jesty had successfully
vaccinated his wife and two sons with cowpox
twenty-two years before—though Jesty did not
seek to disseminate or popularize his
method.
(138) In France:
Debré, Louis
Pasteur,
384.
(139) In the 1880s,
Mayer: Adolf Mayer,
“Concerning the Mosaic Disease of Tobacco,”
in Phytopathological
Classics Number 7, trans.
James Johnson (St. Paul, MN: American
Phytopathological Society Press, 1942),
9–24.
(139) In 1892, a
Russian: Dmitri Ivanowski,
“Concerning the Mosaic Disease of the Tobacco
Plant,” in Phytopathological Classics Number
7, trans. James Johnson (St.
Paul, MN: American Phytopathological Society
Press, 1942), 25–30.
(139) in 1898, a
Dutch: Martinus Beijerinck,
“Concerning a Contagium Vivum Fluidum as a
Cause of the Spot Disease of Tobacco Leaves,”
in Phytopathological
Classics Number 7, trans.
James Johnson (St. Paul, MN: American
Phytopathological Society Press, 1942),
33–52.
(140) In the 1930s, Max
Theiler: Offit, The Cutter
Incident, 14; Max Theiler and
Hugh Smith, “The Use of Yellow Fever Virus
Modified by In Vitro Cultivation for Human
Immunization,” Journal of Experimental
Medicine 1937; 65:
787–800.
(142) “Polio Panic” and “Polio’s
Deadly Path”: Oshinsky,
Polio,
85.
(142) 25,000 polio
cases: Ibid., 81. 142
42,000
cases: Ibid., 128. 142
58,000
cases: Ibid.,
81.
(143) virus was uncommonly
found: Ibid.,
125.
(144) Many virus
families: Jane Smith,
Patenting the
Sun: Polio and the Salk
Vaccine (New York: William
Morrow, 1990), 109.
(144) If that monkey was
injected: Richard Carter,
Breakthrough: The
Saga of Jonas Salk (New York:
Trident Press, 1966), 79. Considered an
indispensable biography of Jonas Salk,
Carter’s book benefited from his extensive,
weeks-long interviews with Salk, and
interviews with other major figures in the
effort to defeat
polio.
(144) In 1949, a third
type: Oshinsky, Polio, 117. Of
the 196 poliovirus strains tested, 161 were
type 1, twenty were type 2, and fifteen were
type 3. See also Jacobs, Jonas Salk,
89.
(144) $1.19
million: Carter, Breakthrough,
73.
(145) In 1948, Enders:
John Enders, Thomas Weller, and Frederick
Robbins, “Cultivation of the Lansing Strain
of Poliomyelitis Virus in Cultures of Various
Human Embryonic Tissues,” Science 1949;
109: 85–87.
(146) “Now, Dr. Salk”:
Carter, Breakthrough, 81. 146
“like being
kicked”, “I could
feel”:
Ibid.
(146) “It became
obvious”: Oshinsky, Polio,
151-152.
(146) “There is no valid
reason”: Carter, Breakthrough,
92.
(147) He could be
arrogant: Ibid.,
137.
(147) “There were sixteen or
seventeen”: Ibid.,
107-108.
(148) A single kidney:
Oshinsky, Polio,
154.
(148) It was a delicate
balance: Smith, Patenting the
Sun,
132.
(148) If a monkey became
ill: Oshinsky, Polio,
156.
(148) he and his lab team
first: Smith, Patenting the
Sun,
136.
(149) “When you inoculate
children”: Carter, Breakthrough,
139.
(149) the vaccine appeared to
work: Jonas Salk, “Studies in
Human Subjects on Active Immunization Against
Poliomyelitis,” Journal of the American Medical
Association 1953; 151(13):
1081–1098.
(149) “It was a tense
meeting”, “It was almost as
if”: Carter, Breakthrough,
144.
(149) Impatient for a
vaccine: Jacobs, Jonas Salk,
116.
(149) “So far as anyone
knows”: John Troan, Passport to
Adventure (Pittsburgh: Neworks
Press, 2000), 198; Pittsburgh Press, January 27,
1953, 2. John Troan was a reporter for the
Pittsburgh
Press newspaper whom Salk
befriended and allowed to cover his vaccine
development closely.
(150) “Researcher
Salk”: “Vaccine for Polio,”
Time,
February 9, 1953, 43.
(150) “Although it was
nice”: Albert Sabin, “Letter
to Jonas Salk, February 9, 1953,” Jonas Salk
Papers, Mandeveille Special Collections,
University of California, San Diego, Box 93,
Folder 5.
(150) “Polio Conquest Nearer” and
“Hint Polio Vaccine Ready”:
Oshinsky, Polio,
171.
(151) “In the studies that
are”: Carter, Breakthrough,
162.
(151) “Told me I was”:
Ibid., 156.
(151) “Jonas E.
Christ”: Ibid.,
214.
(151) He testified
before: Jacobs, Jonas Salk,
128.
(151) 14,000 schools:
Troan, Passport to
Adventure,
219.
(151) 623,972 first, second,
and: Marcia Meldrum, “‘A
Calculated Risk’: The Salk Polio Vaccine
Field Trials of 1954,” British Medical
Journal 1998; 317:
1233–1236.
(152) “Attention
everyone!”: Carter, Breakthrough,
231.
(152) Approximately 95
percent: Oshinsky, Polio,
199.
(152) $9
million: Carter, Breakthrough,
242.
(152) The first three
words: Kluger, Splendid
Solution,
296.
(152) “They brought the
report”: Seavey, A Paralyzing
Fear,
189.
(152) The vaccine was
safe: Thomas Francis,
“Evaluation of the 1954 Poliomyelitis Vaccine
Field Trial,” Journal
of the American Medical
Association 1955; 158(14):
1266–1270. In placebo-controlled areas, the
vaccine was 68% effective against type 1,
100% effective against type 2, and 92%
effective against type 3. This was far better
than many expected. See also Kluger,
Splendid
Solution,
296.
(153) The total
effort: Troan, Passport to
Adventure,
223.
(153) “POLIO IS
CONQUERED”: “Polio Is
Conquered,” Pittsburgh Press, April 12,
1955, 1.
(153) “POLIO ROUTED!”:
“Polio Routed!” New
York Post, April 13, 1955, 1;
Kluger, Splendid
Solution,
301.
(153) “TRIUMPH OVER
POLIO”: “Triumph Over Polio,”
South China
Morning Post, April 13, 1955,
1; Jacobs, Jonas
Salk,
167.
(153) “Hi Billy, I’m back
from”: Seavey, A Paralyzing
Fear,
208.
(153) “The worst
tragedy”: Carter, Breakthrough,
3.
(154) He tried to get the press
to stop: Jacobs, Jonas Salk,
135.
(154) “Who holds the
patent”: Carter, Breakthrough,
283-284.
(154) “Young man, a
great”: Ibid.,
285.
(155) On April 24,
1955: Offit, The Cutter
Incident,
83.
(155) On April 25:
Neal Nathanson and Alexander Langmuir, “The
Cutter Incident: Poliomyelitis Following
Formaldehyde-Inactivated Poliovirus
Vaccination in the United States During the
Spring of 1955,” American Journal of Hygiene
1963; 78: 16–27.
(155) An extensive
investigation: David Bodian,
Thomas Francis, Carl Larson, et al. “Interim
Report, Public Health Service Technical
Committee on Poliomyelitis Vaccine,”
Journal of the
American Medical Association
1955; 159(15): 1445; Offit, The Cutter
Incident, 67, 110. The failure
to completely kill the virus was presumably
due to sediment consisting of monkey kidney
cell debris that had formed over months while
the vaccine mixtures were in storage. Viruses
caught in the sediment were shielded from
exposure to the formaldehyde intended to kill
them. New protocols including filtration to
remove sediment were instituted at all
manufacturing centers.
(155) The botched Cutter
vaccine: Oshinsky, Polio,
237.
(155) “This was the first and
only time”: Carter, Breakthrough,
323.
(155) 15,000 cases:
Oshinsky, Polio,
255.
(156) Sabin weakened the
poliovirus: Ibid.,
245.
(156) Sabin tested his
vaccine: Ibid.,
245-246.
(157) difficulty with
administering the Salk
vaccine: Seavey, A Paralyzing
Fear,
229.
(157) 77 million
people: Oshinsky, Polio,
253.
(157) “hundreds of
children”: Ibid.,
265.
(157) proved
longer-lasting: Jonas Salk,
“Persistence of Immunity After Administration
of Formalin- Treated Poliovirus Vaccine,”
Lancet
1960; 2(7153):
715–723.
(157) 92 percent in five
years: Carter, Breakthrough,
370.
(157) 97 percent:
Jacobs, Jonas
Salk,
227.
(157) “Not only is scientific
justification”:
Carter,
Breakthrough,
376.
(157) He believed his
vaccine: Oshinsky, Polio,
266-267.
(158) “Normally, my father
tried”: Ibid.,
268.
(158) From 1952 to
1981: Melinda Moore, Peter
Katona, Jonathan Kaplan, et al.,
“Poliomyelitis in the United States,
1969–1981,” Journal
of Infectious Diseases 1982;
146(4): 558.
(159) The risk was
about: Neal Nathanson,
“Eradication of Poliomyelitis in the United
States,” Reviews of
Infectious Diseases 1982;
4(5): 943.
(159) In 1996, the
CDC: Oshinsky, Polio,
278-279.
(159) In late December
2019: Andrew Green, “Li
Wenliang,” Lancet 2020; 395:
682.
(160) “7 confirmed
cases”: Li Wenliang, WeChat
posts, Wuhan
University
Clinical Medicine 2004 WeChat
Group, December 30, 2019,
https://web.archive.org/web/20200206144253/http://www.bjnews.com.cn/feature/2020/01/31/682076.html,
accessed July 11,
2022.
(160) December 31,
2019: Derrick Bryson Taylor,
“A Timeline of the Coronavirus Pandemic,”
New York
Times, March 17,
2021.
(160) “I will join medical
workers”: Editorial, “He
Warned of Coronavirus. Here’s What He Told Us
Before He Died,” New
York Times, February 7,
2020.
(161) By April, almost 10
million: Taylor, “A
Timeline.”
(162) On June 28,
1802: Carlos Franco-Paredes,
Lorena Lammaoglia, and Jose Santos-Preciado,
“The Spanish Royal Philanthropic Expedition
to Bring Smallpox Vaccination to the New
World and Asia in the 19th Century,”
Clinical
Infectious Diseases 2005; 41:
1285–1289. Those who research this mission
will often encounter an alternate spelling of
Balmis’s name: Francisco Xavier de
Balmis.
(163) vaccination of 1.5
million: Kenny, The Plague
Cycle, 130.
(163) career of Katalin
Karikó: Gina Kolata, “Kati
Kariko Helped Shield the World from the
Coronavirus” New York
Times, April 9, 2021, 6;
Carolyn Johnson, “A One-Way Ticket. A
Cash-Stuffed Teddy Bear. A Dream Decades in
the Making,” Washington Post, October 1,
2021; Damian Garde and Jonathan Saltzman,
“The Story of mRNA,” Stat, November 10, 2020,
https://www.statnews.com/2020/11/10/the-story-of-mrna-how-a-once-dismissed-idea-became-a-leading-technology-in-the-covid-vaccine-race/,
accessed September 17,
2022.
(164) “I felt like a
god”: Kolata, “Kati
Kariko.”
(164) repeated grant
rejections: Author interview
with Katalin Karikó, September 30,
2022.
(165) “I am an RNA
scientist”: Kolata, “Kati
Kariko.”
(165) red blood cell counts in
mice: Author interview with
Katalin Karikó, September 30,
2022.
(167) two-thirds of child
deaths: Kenny, The Plague
Cycle, 191.
(167) A 1997 Hong Kong
outbreak: Paul Chan, “Outbreak
of Avian Influenza A(H5N1) Virus Infection in
Hong Kong in 1997,” Clinical Infectious Diseases
2002; 34: S58–S64.
(167) A 2003 outbreak:
Arjan Stegeman, Annemarie Bouma, Armin
Elberts, et al., “Avian Influenza A Virus
(H7N7) Epidemic in the Netherlands in 2003:
Course of the Epidemic and Effectiveness of
Control Measures,” Journal of Infectious
Diseases 2004; 190: 2088–2095;
John Barry, The Great
Influenza: The Story of the Deadliest
Plague in History (New York:
Viking, 2004), 114.
الفصل الخامس: السرطان
(169) Einar
Gustafson: This retelling of
Einar Gustafson’s childhood history and
lymphoma diagnosis is derived from the
following sources: Siddhartha Mukherjee,
The Emperor of
All Maladies: A Biography of
Cancer (New York: Scribner,
2010), 96; Douglas Martin, “Einar Gustafson,
65, ‘Jimmy’ of Child Cancer Fund, Dies,”
New York
Times, January 24, 2001, 17;
Pamela Ferdin, “‘This Is Jimmy. Heard You
Were Lookin’ for Me,’” Washington Post,
May 22, 1998. Any student of cancer’s history
would do well to study Mukherjee’s Pulitzer
Prize–winning book. It is an excellent and
comprehensive history of oncology from
antiquity to 2010 that highlights the stories
of Einar Gustafson and Sidney
Farber.
(170) Ninety percent:
David Nathan, The
Cancer Treatment Revolution: How Smart
Drugs and Other Therapies Are Renewing
Our Hope and Changing the Face of
Medicine (Hoboken, NJ: John
Wiley & Sons, 2007),
45.
(170) Each year:
Rebecca Siegel, Kimberly Miller, Hannah
Fuchs, et al., “Cancer Statistics, 2021,”
CA: A Cancer
Journal for Clinicians 2021;
71: 7–33. The figure, 21 percent, is data
from 2018.
(170) one out of every
three: Robin Hesketh,
Betrayed by
Nature: The War on Cancer (New
York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012),
20.
(171) second most prolific
killer: Clifton Leaf,
The Truth in
Small Doses: Why We’re Losing the War on
Cancer— and How to Win It.
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 2013),
35-36.
(172) inconvenient addiction to
cocaine: Gerald Imber,
Genius on the
Edge: The Bizarre Double Life of Dr.
William Stewart Halsted (New
York: Kaplan, 2010),
55–57.
(173) cancer would spring up
again: Mukherjee, The Emperor,
59.
(173) spread directly
outward: Michael Osborne,
“William Stewart Halsted: His Life and
Contributions to Surgery,” Lancet Oncology
2007; 8: 256–265.
(173) an extensive
operation: Imber, Genius on the
Edge,
120-121.
(173) “a mistaken
kindness”: Osborne, “William
Stewart Halsted,”
259-260.
(173) On the evening of November
8, 1895: K. T. Claxton,
Wilhelm
Röntgen (London: Heron Books,
1970), 40–44.
(174) X-rays were not
blocked: Wilhelm Röntgen, “On
a New Kind of Rays,” Science 1896; 3(59):
227–231.
(174) swollen and
painfully: Paul Hodges,
The Life and
Times of Emil H. Grubbe
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1964),
23-24.
(174) Grubbé treated the
tumor: Mukherjee, The Emperor,
75-76.
(175) endured four years of
arduous: Eve Curie, Madame Curie,
trans. Vincent Sheean (New York: Da Capo
Press, 2001), 169, 175; Robert Reid,
Marie
Curie (New York: E. P. Dutton
& Co., 1974),
95.
(175) a new way to treat
cancer: Reid, Marie Curie,
126.
(175) so tightly packed
that: Glenn Infield, Disaster at Bari
(New York; Macmillan, 1971),
2.
(176) only one
battery: Jennet Conant,
The Great Secret:
The Classified World War II Disaster That
Launched the War on Cancer
(New York; W. W. Norton & Company,
2020),
xiii.
(176) “I would regard it
as”: Ibid.,
x.
(176) 105 Junkers Ju 88
bombers: Guy Faguet, The War on Cancer: An
Anatomy of a Failure. A Blueprint for the
Future (New York: Springer,
2005), 70.
(176) seventeen ships were
sunk: Infield, Disaster at
Bari, 141.
(176) An oil pipeline:
Conant, The Great
Secret,
xv.
(176) The total number of
dead: Infield, Disaster at
Bari, xi.
(176) “Second Pearl
Harbor”: Ibid.,
141.
(176) the distinctive smell of
garlic: Ibid.,
62.
(176) sixty to seventy
pounds: Ibid., 17. The ship
was named for John Harvey, a member of the
Continental Congress in 1777, and signer of
the Articles of Confederation. Every crewman
on the ship was lost in the
attack.
(177) 628 military
personnel: Faguet, The War on
Cancer,
71.
(177) An intact American bomb
casing: Conant, The Great
Secret,
89-90.
(177) The 1925 Geneva
Protocol: Ibid.,
16.
(177) their white blood cell
counts: Ibid., 101. Mustard
gas was used in the First World War, and low
white blood cell counts had been noted in
some victims, but few in the medical
community had grasped the importance of this
effect.
(178) “If mustard could do
this”:
Ibid.
(178) noticed by Colonel
Cornelius Rhoads: Ibid., 164.
Rhoads’s interest in Alexander’s Bari data
had been primed by his knowledge of a secret
government research project conducted by two
Yale University pharmacologists named Louis
Goodman and Alfred Gilman. In August 1942,
Goodman and Gilman gave nitrogen mustard to a
series of seven lymphoma patients. The
results were mixed. By mid-1943, this study
was discontinued and deemed too small to
determine if the benefits of treatment
outweighed the chemical’s adverse effects.
See also Louis Goodman, Maxwell Wintrobe,
William Dameshek, et al., “Nitrogen Mustard
Therapy,” Journal of
the American Medical
Association 1946; 132:
126–132; Conant, The
Great Secret,
207-208.
(178) clinical trial of 160
cancer patients: Cornelius
Rhoads, “Nitrogen Mustards in the Treatment
of Neoplastic Disease,” Journal of the American
Medical Association 1946;
131(8): 656–658; Cornelius Rhoads, “Report on
a Cooperative Study of Nitrogen Mustard (HN2)
Therapy of Neoplastic Disease,” Transactions of the
Association of American
Physicians 1947; 60(1):
110–117.
(178) Sidney Farber:
Mukherjee, The
Emperor, 11-12,
18-19.
(179) deterred many
young: John Laszlo, The Cure of Childhood
Leukemia: Into the Age of
Miracles (New Brunswick, NJ:
Rutgers University Press, 1995),
182.
(179) Wills found a
nutrient: Mukherjee, The Emperor,
28-29. Because folic acid was first extracted
from leafy vegetables, its name was derived
from the Latin word for “leaf,” folium. See also
Laszlo, The
Cure,
27.
(179) In 1945,
scientists: R. Leuchtenberger,
C. Leuchtenberger, D. Laszlo, et al., “The
Influence of ‘Folic Acid’ on Spontaneous
Breast Cancers in Mice,” Science 1945;
101(2611): 46.
(179) it actually worsened the
disease: Mukherjee, The Emperor,
29.
(180) Yellapragada
Subbarao: Ibid., 30-31.
Subbarao’s name is sometimes spelled
“Subbarow.”
(180) On December 28,
1947: Sidney Farber, Louis
Diamond, Robert Mercer, et al., “Temporary
Remissions in Acute Leukemia in Children
Produced by Folic Acid Antagonist,
4-Aminopteroyl- glutamic Acid (Aminopterin),”
New England
Journal of Medicine 1948;
238(23): 787–793.
(180) Sandler’s leukemia
relapsed: Mukherjee, The Emperor,
35.
(180) severe
disapproval: Denis Miller, “A
Tribute to Sidney Farber—the Father of Modern
Chemotherapy,” British Journal of
Haematology, 2006; 134: 20–26;
Robert Cooke, Dr.
Folkman’s War: Angiogenesis and the
Struggle to Defeat Cancer (New
York: Random House, 2001), 114; Mukherjee,
The
Emperor,
34.
(180) In a 1948
article: Farber, “Temporary
Remissions,” 787–793.
(182) the Variety
Club, $45,456: Mukherjee,
The
Emperor,
95-96.
(182) The National Foundation
inspired: Gretchen Krueger,
“‘For Jimmy and the Boys and Girls of
America’: Publicizing Childhood Cancers in
Twentieth-Century America,” Bulletin of the History of
Medicine 2007; 81:
70–93.
(183) he found the perfect
one: Mukherjee, The Emperor,
96.
(183) “Tonight we take
you”: The original broadcast
of Edwards’s interview with Einar Gustafson
and the Boston Braves players can be found on
the Jimmy Fund website:
http://www.jimmyfund.org/about-us/about-the-jimmy-fund/einar-gustafson-jimmy-was-inspiration-for-the-jimmy-fund/,
accessed July 14, 2022. Partial transcripts
and descriptions of the interview can also be
found in: Saul Wisnia, The Jimmy Fund of
Dana-Farber Cancer Institute
(Charleston, SC: Arcadia Publishing, 2002),
18-19; Mukherjee, The
Emperor,
97–99.
(185) That very
evening: Mukherjee, The Emperor, 99.
In establishing the Jimmy Fund, Farber was
greatly aided by the work of philanthropist
and socialite Mary Lasker, as well as
celebrities like Ted
Williams.
(186) cure choriocarcinoma:
Min Chiu Li, Roy Hertz, and Donald
Spencer, “Effect of
Methotrexate Therapy upon Choriocarcinoma and
Chorioadenoma,” Proceedings of the Society for
Experimental Biology and
Medicine 1956; 93(2): 361–366;
Mukherjee, The
Emperor,
135–138.
(187) In 1951, two
biochemists: Leaf, The Truth,
234-235. Hitchings and Elion shared a Nobel
Prize in 1988.
(187) Even the dirt:
Vincent DeVita and Elizabeth DeVita-Raeburn,
The Death of
Cancer (New York: Farrar,
Straus and Giroux, 2015),
66.
(187) periwinkle
plant: James Wright, “Almost
Famous: E. Clark Noble, the Common Thread in
the Discovery of Insulin and Vinblastine,”
Canadian Medical
Association Journal 2002;
167(12): 1391–1396. As a medical student,
Clark Noble lost a coin flip with Charles
Best to determine who would first work with
Frederick Banting (and discover insulin)
during the fateful summer of 1921. Clark’s
brother, Robert, worked in the lab of James
Collip, also of insulin
fame.
(187) Robert Noble,
injected: Robert Noble,
Charles Beer, and Harry Cutts, “Role of
Chance Observations in Chemotherapy:
Vinca
Rosea,” Annals of New York Academy
of Sciences 1958; 76(3):
882–894. Robert Noble later found that Eli
Lilly & Company had also investigated
the periwinkle plant and identified the same
phenomenon.
(187) Noble later
cooperated: Robert Noble, “The
Discovery of the Vinca
Alkaloids—Chemotherapeutic Agents Against
Cancer,” Biochemistry
and Cell Biology 1990; 68:
1344–1351.
(188) tested actinomycin D in
humans: Mukherjee, The Emperor,
122-123.
(188) “maximum tolerated
dose”: Cooke, Dr. Folkman’s
War,
53.
(189) Since each drug caused
different: Nathan, The Cancer
Treatment, 48–49. The idea of
combination chemotherapy was also promoted by
Abraham Goldin and Lloyd Law at the National
Cancer Institute, and Howard Skipper and
Frank Schabel at the Southern Research
Institute in Alabama.
(189) Many of Frei and
Freireich’s: DeVita, The Death of
Cancer, 47; Laszlo, The Cure,
182-183.
(189) “It’s fine for rats and
mice”: Nathan, The Cancer
Treatment,
50.
(190) “This is a meat
market!”, “It was
embarrassing”: DeVita,
The Death of
Cancer,
49.
(190) advised to
avoid: Ibid.,
50.
(190) toxic VAMP
cocktail: Mukherjee, The Emperor,
144-145.
(190) “For me, this was a
nightmare”: Nathan, The Cancer
Treatment, 57. David Nathan
later became the president of the Dana-Farber
Cancer Institute.
(190) 60 percent:
Domenico Ribatti, “Sidney Farber and the
Treatment of Childhood Acute Lymphoblastic
Leukemia with a Chemotherapeutic Agent,”
Pediatric
Hematology and Oncology 2012;
29: 299–302.
(191) By 1975, the
five-year: Leaf, The Truth,
238.
(191) all-cancer five-year
survival rate: DeVita,
The Death of
Cancer,
36.
(192) 8.7 percent:
John Bailar and Elaine Smith, “Progress
Against Cancer?” New
England Journal of Medicine
1986; 314(19):
1226–1232.
(192) “a black box that we’re
trying”: Cooke, Dr. Folkman’s
War,
157.
(192) a macabre joke:
Robert Bazell, Her-2:
The Making of Herceptin, a Revolutionary
Treatment for Breast Cancer
(New York: Random House, 1998),
xvi.
(193) studied the prostate
glands: Charles Huggins,
Lillian Eichelberger, and James Wharton,
“Quantitative Studies of Prostatic Secretion:
I. Characteristics of the Normal Secretion;
The Influence of the Thyroid, Suprarenal, and
Testis Extirpation and Androgen Substitution
on the Prostatic Output,” Journal of Experimental
Medicine 1939; 70(6):
543–556.
(193) when he removed their
testicles: Hesketh, Betrayed by
Nature,
15.
(193) a Scottish surgeon named
George Beatson: Bazell,
Her-2,
25.
(193) shown in 1971:
Mary Cole, C. Jones, and I. Todd, “A New
Anti-Oestrogenic Agent in Late Breast Cancer:
An Early Clinical Appraisal of ICI46474,”
British Journal
of Cancer 1971; 25(2):
270–275.
(194) how heavily many tumors
were invested: Leaf, The Truth,
208-209.
(194) “purifying
dirt”: Cooke, Dr. Folkman’s
War,
117.
(194) “You’re making a
mockery”: Ibid.,
183.
(194) “Judah made presentations
almost”: DeVita, The Death of
Cancer,
277.
(194) published in
Science: Yuen Shing, Judah Folkman, R.
Sullivan, et al., “Heparin Affinity:
Purification of a Tumor-Derived Capillary
Endothelial Cell Growth Factor,” Science 1984;
223: 1296–1298.
(195) surgeon named Percivall
Pott: Mukherjee, The Emperor,
237–239.
(195) cytologist named George
Papanicolaou: Barron Lerner,
The Breast Cancer
Wars: Hope, Fear, and the Pursuit of a
Cure in Twentieth Century
America (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2001), 48-49; Mukherjee,
The
Emperor,
286–289.
(195) “New Cancer
Diagnosis”: George
Papanicolaou, “George Nicholas Papanicolaou’s
New Cancer Diagnosis Presented at the Third
Race Betterment Conference, Battle Creek,
Michigan, January 2–6, 1928, and Published in
the Proceedings of the Conference,” CA: A Cancer Journal for
Clinicians 1973; 23(3):
174–179. Part of the reason Papanicolaou’s
work was ignored for so long may have been
because he had not been able to publish his
research in a major medical journal. His
first paper was presented at a conference on
eugenics, a field that became discredited
after the Second World
War.
(196) large-scale
trial: Mukherjee, The Emperor,
289-290.
(196) six million
women: Michael Kinch,
The End of the
Beginning: Cancer, Immunity, and the
Future of a Cure (New York:
Pegasus Books, 2019),
114.
(196) virologist named Peyton
Rous: James Patterson,
The Dread
Disease: Cancer and Modern American
Culture (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 1987), 59;
Mukherjee, The
Emperor,
173.
(197) he excised a
tumor: Hesketh, Betrayed by
Nature,
111.
(197) The search was fruitless
until: Leaf, The Truth,
261-262.
(197) a band across
sub-Saharan: Ibid.,
269.
(197) a used station
wagon: Ibid.,
274.
(197) a region’s
temperature: Ibid., 276-277;
Kinch, The
End,
109-110.
(198) In 1963, Burkitt
sent: Kinch, The End,
110-111.
(198) “New Evidence
That”:Life, June
22, 1962, cover.
(198) To prove
bacteria: Mukherjee, The Emperor,
283.
(199) In 1970, two
virologists: Geoffrey Cooper,
Rayla Greenberg-Temin, and Bill Sugden, eds.
The DNA Provirus:
Howard Temin’s Scientific
Legacy (Washington, D.C.: ASM
Press, 1995), xiii, xx, 47; Howard Temin and
Satoshi Mizutani, “RNA-Dependent DNA
Polymerase in Virions of Rous Sarcoma Virus,”
Nature
1970; 226(5252): 1211–1213; David Baltimore,
“RNA-Dependent DNA Polymerase in Virions of
RNA Tumor Viruses,” Nature 1970; 226(5252):
1209–1211.
(199) four different
genes: J. Michael Bishop,
How to Win a
Nobel Prize (Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press, 2003),
161.
(199) An even greater
discovery: Ibid.,
164.
(200) termed
proto-oncogenes: Mukherjee, The Emperor,
362.
(200) If a suppressor
gene: Mukherjee, The Emperor,
368. Each person has two copies of each tumor
suppressor gene (one from each parent), and
children only develop retinoblastoma if both
copies become mutated, which can occur
spontaneously or by
inheritance.
(200) at least a hundred
oncogenes: Ibid.,
386.
(201) An oncologist
named: Bazell, Her-2,
42.
(202) Pancreatic cancer has
twelve: DeVita, The Death of
Cancer,
265.
(202) A 2006 study of:
Tobias Sjoblom, Sian Jones, Laura Wood, et
al., “The Consensus Coding Sequences of Human
Breast and Colorectal Cancers,” Science 2006;
314: 268–274.
(202) “The actual course of
research”: William Hahn and
Robert Weinberg, “Rules for Making Human
Tumor Cells,” New
England Journal of Medicine
2002; 347(20):
1593–1603.
(203) Dr. William
Coley: Stephen Hall, A Commotion in the
Blood (New York; Henry Holt
& Co., 1997), 22–24; Charles Graeber,
The Breakthrough:
Immunotherapy and the Race to Cure
Cancer (New York; Twelve,
2018), 36–39; Kinch, The End,
124-125.
(203) “one of the most
malignant”: William Coley,
“The Diagnosis and Treatment of Bone
Sarcoma,” Glasgow
Medical Journal 1936; 8(2):
82.
(203) German
immigrant: William Coley, “The
Treatment of Malignant Tumors by Repeated
Inoculations of Erysipelas: With a Report of
Ten Original Cases,” Clinical Orthopedics and Related
Research 1991; 262: 3–11
(reprinted from the American Journal of the Medical
Sciences 1893; 105:
487).
(203) “absolutely
hopeless”: Hall, A Commotion,
40.
(204) roamed the Lower East
Side: Ibid.,
29.
(204) prominent neck
scar: Stephen Hoption Cann,
Johannes van Netten, and Chris van Netten,
“Dr. William Coley and Tumour Regression: A
Place in History or in the Future,” Postgraduate Medical
Journal 2003; 79(938):
672–680.
(204) “If erysipelas”,
“determined to
try”: Hall, A Commotion, 42.
Coley later learned a European physician
named Friedrich Fehleisen had previously
tested a similar idea, injecting bacteria
into seven patients in 1882. Also, a German
scientist named W. Busch had tried the method
in one patient, in 1866. See also Hall,
A
Commotion,
47-48.
(205) It did not take
long: Coley, “The Treatment,”
3–11; Hall, A
Commotion, 51–57; Graeber,
The
Breakthrough,
46–50.
(205) a colleague who was
traveling: William Coley, “The
Treatment of Inoperable Sarcoma by Bacterial
Toxins (The Mixed Toxins of the Streptococcus
Erysipelas and the Bacillus
Prodigiosus),” Proceedings of the Royal
Society of Medicine 1910; 3:
1–48. Coley monitored Zola, who remained
cancer-free for eight years before dying from
a recurrence while living in
Italy.
(205) tried the bacterial
inoculations: Graeber,
The
Breakthrough, 51. At a medical
conference in 1896, Coley reported a series
of 160 patients and stated “nearly one-half”
of ninety-three sarcoma cases showed some
improvement. See also Hall, A Commotion,
72.
(205) could not
replicate: Editorial, “The
Failure of the Erysipelas Toxins,” Journal of the American
Medical Association 1894;
23(24): 919.
(205) concocted a
heat-killed: Edward McCarthy,
“The Toxins of William B. Coley and the
Treatment of Bone and Soft-Tissue Sarcomas,”
Iowa Orthopedic
Journal 2006; 26:
154–158.
(206) Though he would
endure: Hall, A Commotion,
53.
(206) for sale until
1952: Graeber, The
Breakthrough,
56.
(206) Coley treated more than a
thousand: McCarthy, “The
Toxins,” 157.
(207) D’Angelo, was slated
for: Steven Rosenberg and John
Barry, The
Transformed Cell: Unlocking the Mysteries
of Cancer (New York: G. P.
Putnam’s Sons, 1992), 11–23. Note: in his
book, Rosenberg states that he changed the
names of patients, such as “James D’Angelo,”
to protect patient
privacy.
(208) extract their T
cells: Ibid.,
87.
(208) He treated sixty-six
patients: Andrew Pollack,
“Setting the Body’s ‘Serial Killers’ Loose on
Cancer,” New York
Times, August 1, 2016, 1;
Rosenberg, The
Transformed Cell,
193-194.
(208) grew billions of
Taylor’s: Rosenberg, The Transformed
Cell, 203–208, 213. In his
book, Rosenberg calls this patient “Linda
Granger,” but her identity as Linda Taylor
became known after the publication of
numerous media stories about her as the first
cancer patient to have been cured by
immunotherapy.
(208) cover of
Newsweek: Hall, A
Commotion, 294,
296.
(208) If T cells could
recognize: Graeber, The
Breakthrough,
90.
(209) tumor cells in
mice: Matt Richtel, An Elegant Defense: The
Extraordinary
New Science of the Immune
System (New York: William
Morrow, 2019), 308; Graeber, The
Breakthrough,
105.
(209) Allison’s CTLA-4
inhibitor: Dana Leach, Matthew
Krummel, and James Allison, “Enhancement of
Antitumor Immunity by CTLA-4 Blockade,”
Science 1996; 271:
1734–1736.
(210) former president Jimmy
Carter: Kinch, The End,
242-243.
(210) Scientists have
developed: Gideon Gross, Tova
Waks, and Zelig
Eshhar, “Expression of Immunoglobulin-T-Cell
Receptor Chimeric
Molecules as
Functional Receptors with Antibody- Type
Specificity,” Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences of the United States of
America 1989; 86: 10024–10028;
Kinch, The
End,
192-193.
(211) Emily Whitehead:
Denise Grady, “In Girl’s Last Hope, Altered
Immune Cells Beat Leukemia,” New York Times,
December 9, 2012.
(211) In 1997, Karen
Cummings: Wisnia, The Jimmy Fund,
118; Mukherjee, The Emperor,
395.
(212) six feet, five inches
tall: Martin, “Einar
Gustafson.”
(212) “I’ve had that
before”:
Ibid.
(212) Since the war on
cancer: DeVita, Death of Cancer,
244.
(212) From the 1990s
to: Ibid.,
245.
(212) The five-year survival
rate: Siegel, “Cancer
Statistics,” 15. The five-year survival rate
from this 2021 report pertains to cancers
diagnosed between 2010 and
2016.
الفصل السادس: الصدمات
(214) had
not even sought: Ira Rutkow,
James A.
Garfield (New York: Henry Holt
and Co., 2006), 54-55.
(214) civil service
reform: Justus Doenecke,
The Presidencies
of James A. Garfield & Chester A.
Arthur (Lawrence, KS:
University Press of Kansas, 1981),
38–39.
(215) Consul to Paris:
Rutkow, James A.
Garfield,
71.
(215) six feet away:
Ibid., 83.
(215) “My God!”:
Kenneth Ackerman, Dark Horse: The Surprise Election and
Political Murder of James A.
Garfield (New York: Carroll
& Graf Publishers, 2003),
378.
(215) four inches to the
right: D. Willard Bliss,
“Report of the Case of President Garfield,
Accompanied with a Detailed Account of the
Autopsy,” The Medical
Record 1881; 20(15): 393–402.
This report was Dr. Bliss’s official record
of the president’s entire course of care,
from the shooting to the
autopsy.
(216) “The President was deathly
pale”: Robert Reyburn,
“Clinical History of the Case of President
James Abram Garfield,” Journal of the American
Medical Association 1894; 22:
412. Reyburn published an extensive,
day-by-day account of the president’s care in
1894. This detailed record has served as a
valuable primary source for medical
historians ever since.
(216) Bliss had extensive
experience: Rutkow, James A.
Garfield,
85.
(216) “Nelaton” probe:
Gustavo Colon, “President James Garfield’s
Death: A Criticism,” Journal of the Louisiana State Medical
Society 2001; 153:
454-456.
(216) “gently passed
it”: Bliss, “Report of the
Case,” 393.
(216) Bliss’s parents:
Candice Millard, Destiny of the Republic: A Tale of
Madness, Medicine, and the Murder of a
President (New York:
Doubleday, 2011), 141.
(217) Surgery was
considered: Fitzharris,
The Butchering
Art, 22.
(217) many candles:
Richard Hollingham, Blood and Guts: A History of
Surgery
(New York: Thomas Dunne Books, 2008),
98.
(217) Surgeons did not
routinely: J. Wesley
Alexander, “The Contributions of Infection
Control to a Century of Surgical Progress,”
Annals of
Surgery 1985; 201:
423–428.
(218) “the gleam of [Liston’s]
knife”: D. J. Coltart,
“Surgery Between Hunter and Lister: As
Exemplified by the Life and Works of Robert
Liston (1794–1847),” Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Medicine 1972; 65:
556–560.
(218) “Now, gentlemen, time
me!”: Reginald Magee, “Robert
Liston: Surgeon Extraordinary,” ANZ Journal of
Surgery 1999; 69: 878–881;
Fitzharris, The
Butchering Art,
14.
(218) cut off a man’s
testicle: Fitzharris,
The Butchering
Art,
10.
(218) One frightened
man: Ibid.,
12.
(218) Long participated
in: Crawford Williamson Long,
“An Account of the First Use of Sulphuric
Ether by Inhalation as an Anaesthetic in
Surgical Operations,” Southern Medical and Surgical
Journal 1949; 5: 705–713;
Editorial, “Crawford W. Long (1815–1878):
Discoverer of Ether for Anesthesia,”
Journal of the
American Medical Association
1965; 194(9): 160-161.
(218) “seemed
incredulous”: Long, “An
Account of,” 708.
(219) “Gentlemen, this is
no”: Daniel Robinson and
Alexander Toledo, “Historical Development of
Modern Anesthesia,” Journal of Investigative
Surgery 2012; 25:
141–149.
(219) “We are going to
try”, “When are you going to”:
Coltart, “Surgery Between Hunter and Lister,”
559.
(219) “This Yankee
dodge”: Ibid.; Fitzharris,
The Butchering
Art,
15.
(219) Sitting in the
audience: Alex Sakula, “Lord
Lister, OM PRS (1827–1912),” Journal of Medical
Biography 2005; 13:
70.
(220) 80 percent of
operations: Alexander, “The
Contributions,” 423.
(220) Predictably, this
increased: Fitzharris,
The Butchering
Art,
17.
(220) “Houses of
Death”: Ibid.,
46.
(220) “A man laid on the operating
table”, 40 percent: Richard
Fisher, Joseph
Lister (New York: Stein and
Day, 1977), 123–124.
(220) a Philadelphia
hospital: Ibid.,
52.
(220) blamed such
infections: Rhoda Truax,
Joseph Lister:
Father of Modern Surgery (New
York: Bobbs-Merrill Company, 1944),
37.
(220) intentionally
destroyed: Fisher, Joseph Lister,
124. 221 “11 P.M.
Query”: Ibid.,
122.
(221) “It is a common
observation”: Hector Charles
Cameron, Joseph
Lister: The Friend of Man
(London: Whitefriars Press, 1949),
54-55.
(221) He read about Louis
Pasteur’s: Fisher, Joseph Lister,
121.
(221) minute
organisms: Joseph Lister, “On
a New Method of Treating Compound Fracture,
Abscess, Etc.,” Lancet, March 16, 1867:
326–329.
(221) “When I read”:
Joseph Lister, speaking at the “Meeting of
the International Medical Congress,”
Boston Medical
and Surgical Journal 1876; 95:
328.
(222) as a preventative
measure: Rickman John Godlee,
Lord
Lister (London: Macmillan,
1917), 180. As a biographer, Godlee had the
benefit of being a surgeon, and Lister’s
nephew and mentee.
(222) Lister tested numerous
types: Fisher, Joseph Lister,
155.
(222) engineers in
Carlisle: Godlee, Lord Lister,
182; Fitzharris, The
Butchering Art, 161. Lister
also noted that carbolic acid had been used
by some physicians in continental
Europe—though not, apparently, in a way that
had significantly reduced infection rates on
a large scale, nor how Lister wanted to try
it, as a preventative. See also Fitzharris,
The Butchering
Art,
179–181.
(222) eleven-year-old
boy: Lister, “On a New
Method,” 327.
(222) The safest move would
be: Fisher, Joseph Lister,
136. In the early 1860s, about one-fourth of
compound fracture patients who did not have
the limb amputated died. See also Fitzharris,
The Butchering
Art,
191.
(223) set the bones:
Guy Theodore Wrench, Lord Lister: His Life &
Work (New York: Frederick
Stokes Company, 1913),
106-107.
(223) ten compound fracture
patients: Lister, “On a New
Method,” 327–329, 507–509;
Fitzharris, The
Butchering Art,
166-167.
(223) not a single case of
sepsis: Joseph Lister, “On the
Antiseptic Principle in the Practice of
Surgery,” British
Medical Journal 1867; 2(351):
246–248.
(223) “I now perform an
operation”: Godlee, Lord Lister,
198.
(223) not what he
hoped: Ibid., 199–208,
311-312.
(224) They could not
abide: Fitzharris, The Butchering
Art,
185.
(224) carbolic acid
poisoning: Fisher, Joseph Lister,
165.
(224) “carbolic acid
mania”: D. Campbell Black,
“Mr. Nunneley and the Antiseptic Treatment
(Carbolic Acid),” British Medical Journal 1869;
2(453): 281.
(224) “Shut the door
quickly”: Laurence Farmer,
Master Surgeon: A
Biography of
Joseph Lister (New York:
Harper & Brothers, 1962),
111.
(224) spray carbolic
acid: Wrench, Lord Lister,
228.
(224) far wider
acceptance: Fitzharris,
The Butchering
Art,
210-211.
(225) “Gentlemen, I am the
only”: Fisher, Joseph Lister,
194.
(225) about 50
percent: Alexander, “The
Contributions,” 424.
(225) hailed as a
hero: Truax, Joseph Lister,
180-181; Fitzharris, The Butchering Art,
214-215.
(225) 450 physicians:
Reported in “Meeting of the International
Medical Congress,” Boston Medical and Surgical
Journal 1876; 95:
323.
(225) express purpose of
discrediting: Fitzharris,
The Butchering
Art,
219–221.
(225) banned Lister’s
method: Ibid.,
215.
(225) “A large
proportion”: Rutkow, James A.
Garfield,
107-108.
(225) “Little, if any
faith”: Ibid., 108. It should
be noted that Lister did manage to gain one
important convert at the end of his American
tour—the influential Massachusetts General
Hospital surgeon Henry Bigelow. Bigelow had
previously banned antiseptic technique at the
hospital; but he became so impressed by
Lister that he subsequently embraced its use.
Massachusetts General was the first American
hospital to require carbolic acid antisepsis.
See also Fitzharris, The Butchering Art,
223.
(226) Bliss remained strongly
opposed: James Herndon,
“Ignorance Is Bliss,” The Harvard Orthopaedic
Journal 2013; 15: 74–77;
Millard, Destiny
of,
141.
(227) the next day:
Bradley Weiner, “The Case of James A.
Garfield,” Spine 2003; 28(10):
E183–E186.
(227) wine and daily
injections: Millard, Destiny of,
175.
(227) “I think that we
have”: Ibid.,
159.
(227) “If I can’t save
him”:Chicago
Tribune, July 4, 1881,
2.
(227) on July 23:
Reyburn, “Clinical History,” 463-464; Bliss,
“Report of the Case,”
396.
(227) Two days later:
Reyburn, “Clinical History,”
498-499.
(228) fired into the
backs: Howard Wilcox, “The
President Ails: American Medicine in
Retrospect,” Delaware
Medical Journal 1981; 53(4):
201–210.
(228) “induction
balance”: Weiner, “The Case
of,” E184.
(228) Multiple, non-sterile
drainage tubes: Reyburn,
“Clinical History,” 500; Ibrahim Eltorai,
“Fatal Spinal Cord Injury of the 20th
President of the United States: Day-by-Day
Review of His Clinical Course, with
Comments,” Journal of
Spinal Cord Medicine; 27(4):
330–341.
(228) on August 8:
Reyburn, “Clinical History,” 545; Millard,
Destiny
of,
216.
(228) His weight
dropped: Reyburn, “Clinical
History,” 549.
(228) via enema:
Ibid., 547.
(228) Always
retaining: Allan Peskin,
Garfield (Kent, OH: Kent
State University Press, 1978),
600-601.
(228) Infection became so
widespread that: Reyburn,
“Clinical History,”
578–580.
(228) began to have
hallucinations: Eltorai,
“Fatal Spinal Cord Injury,”
337.
(228) “easily passed
downwards”: Reyburn, “Clinical
History,” 580.
(229) 2,000 people:
Millard, Destiny
of,
226.
(229) it had
ricocheted: Bliss, “Report of
the Case,” 401; Reyburn, “Clinical History,”
665.
(229) The consensus of
most: George Paulson, “Death
of a President and His Assassin—Errors in
Their Diagnosis and Autopsies,” Journal of the History of
the Neurosciences 2006; 15:
77–91; Millard, Destiny of,
253.
(229) many Civil War
veterans: Weiner, “The Case
of,” E185.
(230) Bliss was roundly
criticized: Eltorai, “Fatal
Spinal Cord Injury,” 340; Ackerman, Dark Horse,
439.
(230) overly optimistic public
bulletins: Paulson, “Death of
a President,” 81. In Bliss’s defense, using
one’s fingers to explore a gunshot wound was
considered the standard of care in the U.S.
at the time. And his optimistic bulletins
were reportedly influenced by the fact that
the president himself would be reading the
reports in the newspapers. As a result, his
physicians were reluctant to report negative
information that might cause Garfield dismay.
See also Reyburn, “
Clinical History,”
415.
(230) “more to cast
distrust”: Rutkow, James A.
Garfield,
131.
(230) “ignorance is
Bliss”: Herndon, “Ignorance Is
Bliss,” 74-75.
(230) “General
Garfield”: James Clark,
The Murder of
James A. Garfield: The President’s Last
Days and the Trial and Execution of His
Assassin (Jefferson, NC:
McFarland & Company, 1993),
122-123.
(230) Pendleton Civil
Service: Ackerman, Dark Horse,
437.
(230) helped American
physicians: Rutkow, James A.
Garfield,
132.
(231) “The only winner in
war”: Jeffery Howard, Russ
Kotwal, Caryn Stern, et al., “Use of Combat
Casualty Data to Assess the US Military
Trauma System During the Afghanistan and Iraq
Conflicts, 2001–2017,” Journal of the American
Medical Association Surgery
2019; 154(7): 600–608.
(231) 16 percent:
Andrew Bamji, Faces
from the Front: Harold Gillies, The
Queens Hospital, Sidcup, and the Origins
of Modern Plastic Surgery
(Solihull, West Midlands, UK: Helion &
Company, 2017), 17.
(232) Valadier was not
licensed: Donald Simpson and
David David, “World War I: The Genesis of
Craniomaxillofacial Surgery?” ANZ Journal of
Surgery 2004; 74:
71–77.
(232) “I stood
spellbound”: Harold Gillies
and D. Ralph Millard, The Principles and Art of Plastic
Surgery (Boston; Little,
Brown, 1957), 7.
(233) to recruit
surgeons: Harold Ellis, “Two
Pioneers of Plastic Surgery: Sir Harold Delf
Gillies and Sir Archibald McIndoe,” British Journal of Hospital
Medicine 2010; 71(12):
698.
(233) luggage tags:
Murray Meikle, Reconstructing Faces: The Art and
Wartime Surgery of Gillies, Pickerill,
McIndoe, & Mowlem
(Dunedin, NZ; Otago University Press, 2013),
56.
(233) 2,000 dreadfully
disfigured: Murray Meikle,
“The Evolution of Plastic and Maxillofacial
Surgery in the Twentieth Century: The Dunedin
Connection,” Surgeon 2006; 4(5):
325–334.
(233) “There were
wounds”: Reginald Pound,
Gillies: Surgeon
Extraordinary (London: Michael
Joseph, Ltd., 1964),
33.
(233) He learned it was
unwise: Bamji, Faces from,
70.
(234) Gillies’s simplest skin
flap: Harold Gillies,
Plastic Surgery
of the Face (London: Hodder
and Stoughton, 1920),
19–21.
(234) so that the
hair: Bamji, Faces from,
88.
(235) 11,752
surgeries: D. N. Matthews,
“Gillies, Mastermind of Modern Plastic
Surgery,” British
Journal of Plastic Surgery
1979; 32: 68–77.
(236) “This poor
sailor”: Gillies, Plastic Surgery,
356–359.
(236) “father of plastic
surgery”: Gillies, The Principles and
Art, 633. Gillies later
learned that the tubed pedicle method had
also been independently developed by a
Russian surgeon named Vladimir Filatov, and a
German named Hugo Ganzer, during the
war.
(236) “plastic surgery is a
constant”: Bamji, Faces from,
131.
(237) August 31, 1940:
Tom Gleave, I Had a
Row with a German (London:
Macmillan, 1941), 65-66. This was Gleave’s
memoir, published a year after the Battle of
Britain under the pseudonym “R.A.F. Casualty”
because the British Air Ministry forbade
pilots from publishing military accounts in
their own names. See also Meikle, Reconstructing
Faces,
147.
(237) “I went back
to”: Ibid.,
66.
(237) the sun shone
brightly: James Rothwell, “The
Weather During the Battle of Britain in
1940,” Weather 2012; 67(4):
109-110.
(238) “heard a metallic
click”, “A long spout”:
Gleave, I Had a
Row,
68.
(238) “like the
centre”: Ibid.,
69.
(238) blinding flash:
Ibid., 70.
(238) “The skin on my right
leg”: Ibid.,
71-72.
(239) His nose was
practically: Fong, Extreme
Medicine,
41.
(239) put Gleave on his
back: Tom Gleave, interviewed
on This Is Your
Life television
program, Season
31, Episode 12, aired January 9, 1991, on
Thames Television.
(239) a wheelbarrow:
Peter Williams and Ted Harrison, McIndoe’s Army: The Injured
Airmen Who Faced the World
(London: Pelham Books, 1979),
42.
(239) tannic acid: E.
R. Mayhew, The
Reconstruction of Warriors: Archibald
McIndoe, the Royal Air Force and the
Guinea Pig Club (London:
Greenhill Books, 2004),
58-59.
(239) “What on earth”,
“I had a
row”: Gleave, I Had a Row,
80.
(239) McIndoe was passionate,
headstrong: Leonard Mosley,
Faces from the
Fire: The Biography of Sir Archibald
McIndoe (Englewood, NJ:
Prentice Hall, 1962), 47, 144; Mayhew,
The
Reconstruction,
75.
(240) 4,500 Allied
airmen: Mosley, Faces from,
9.
(240) gone down in the salt
water: Ibid., 83-84; Meikle,
The
Evolution,
332.
(240) In the salt
baths: Mayhew, The
Reconstruction,
62-63.
(240) large heat
lamps: Fong, Extreme
Medicine,
43-44.
(241) “waltzing”:
Ibid., 45-46.
(241) Sir Stafford
Cripps: Mosley, Faces from,
146.
(241) “One day”:
Ibid., 102.
(242) “You need a new
nose”: Gleave, I Had a Row,
97-98.
(242) at least ten
operations: Meikle, Reconstructing
Faces,
133-134.
(242) “Imagine how they
feel”: Mosley, Faces from,
95.
(242) Flowers and live
music: Alexandra Macnamara and
Neil Metcalfe, “Sir Archibald Hector McIndoe
(1900–1960) and the Guinea Pig Club: The
Development of Reconstructive Surgery and
Rehabilitation in the Second World War
(1939–1945),” Journal
of Medical Biography 2014;
22(4): 224–228.
(242) Rank among his
patients: Meikle, The Evolution,
332.
(243) “the most
exclusive”: Mayhew, The
Reconstruction,
78.
(243) “the town that never
stared”: Williams, McIndoe’s Army,
36.
(243) game of soccer:
Macnamara, “Sir Archibald,”
226.
(243) “The first time you
see”: Mayhew, The
Reconstruction,
165-166.
(244) “We have now
arrived”: Ibid.,
76.
(244) an Australian
surgeon: Fong, Extreme
Medicine,
50-51.
(244) “The body is a
three-dimensional”: G. Ian
Taylor and John Palmer, “The Vascular
Territories (Angiosomes) of the Body:
Experimental Study and Clinical
Applications,” British Journal of Plastic
Surgery 1987; 40:
113–141.
(245) France’s
president: Christopher Dente
and David Feliciano, “Alexis Carrel
(1873–1944),” Archives of Surgery 2005;
140: 609-610.
(245) owned a lace
factory: Sheldon Levin,
“Alexis Carrel’s Historic Leap of Faith,”
Journal of
Vascular Surgery 2013; 61(3):
832-833.
(245) cigarette paper:
Hollingham, Blood and
Guts,
172-173.
(246) surgeon Bohdan
Pomahač: Fong, Extreme
Medicine, 54–65. Fong’s book
contains excellent sections on Archibald
McIndoe and Bohdan Pomahac’s operation on
Dallas Wiens.
(247) “I could not
bear”: Katie Moisse and Angela
Hill, “Dallas Wiens Reunites with Daughter
After Full Face Transplant,” May 8, 2011,
https://abcnews.go.com/Health/Wellness/full-face-transplant-recipient-dallas-weins-reunites-daughter/story?id=13558167,
accessed July 17,
2022.
(247) look nothing like the
donor: Fong, Extreme
Medicine,
54.
(247) Another major ethical
consideration: Branislav
Kollar and Bohdan Pomahač, “Facial
Restoration by Transplantation,” Surgeon 2018;
16: 245–249.
(247) seventeen hours:
Bohdan Pomahač, Julian Pribaz, Elof Eriksson,
et al., “Three Patients with Full Facial
Transplantation,” New
England Journal of Medicine
2012; 366(8): 715–722.
(247) postponed until the donor’s
heart: Fong, Extreme
Medicine,
61-62.
(248) “I wouldn’t even
know”: Moisse, “Dallas Wiens
Reunites.”
(248) March 30, 1981:
Oliver Beahrs, “The Medical History of
President Ronald Reagan,” Journal of the American
College of Surgeons 1994; 178:
86–96; David Rockoff and Benjamin Aaron, “The
Shooting of President Reagan: A Radiologic
Chronology of His Medical Care,” Radiographics
1995; 15(2): 407–418.
(249) “You not only broke a
rib”: Ronald Reagan, An American Life
(New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990),
260.
(249) The president’s
appearance: Benjamin Aaron and
David Rockoff, “The Attempted Assassination
of President Reagan,” Journal of the American Medical
Association 1994; 272(21):
1689–1693.
(249) “Honey, I forgot to
duck”: Reagan, An American
Life, 260.
(249) “I hope you’re a
Republican”: Ibid.,
261.
(249) a professed
Democrat: Aaron, “The
Attempted Assassination,”
1690.
(250) “Am I dead?”:
Hedrick Smith, The
Power Game: How Washington
Works (New York: Random House,
1988), 299.
(250) “the greatest love
offering”: Stuart Taylor,
“Hinkley Hails ‘Historical’ Shooting to Win
Love,” New York
Times, July 9, 1982,
10.
(251) Dominique Jean
Larrey: Panagiotis
Skandalakis, Panagiotis Lainas, Odyseas
Zoras, et al., “‘To Afford the Wounded Speedy
Assistance’: Dominique Jean Larrey and
Napoleon,” World
Journal of Surgery 2006; 30:
1392–1399; Fong, Extreme Medicine,
95-96.
(251) separated into three
groups: Bamji, Faces from,
26.
(251) 200 amputations:
David Welling and Norman Rich, “Dominique
Jean Larrey and the Russian Campaign of
1812,” Journal of the
American College of Surgeons
2013; 216(3): 493–500.
(252) 0.25 percent:
Arthur Kellermann, Eric Elster, and Todd
Rasmussen, “How the
US Military Reinvented Trauma Care and What
This Means for US Medicine,” Health Affairs,
July 3, 2018,
https://www.healthaffairs.org/do/10.1377/hblog20180628.431867/full/,
accessed November 6,
2022.
(252) a portion of trachea grown
from: Paolo Macchiarini,
Philipp Jungebluth, Tetsuhiko Go, et al.,
“Clinical Transplantation of a
Tissue-Engineered
Airway,” Lancet 2008; 372:
2023–2030.
الفصل السابع: الولادة
(254) Because Charlotte’s parents:
Anne Stott, The Lost
Queen: The Life and Tragedy of the Prince
Regent’s Daughter (Yorkshire,
UK: Pen & Sword Books, 2020),
21.
(254) the people loved
her: Steven Parissien,
George IV:
Inspiration of the Regency
(New York: St. Martin’s, 2001), 232,
239.
(255) could not abide the
idea: Ibid.,
235.
(255) intermittently
bled: Christopher Hibbert,
George IV: Regent
and King (New York: Harper
& Row, 1973),
97.
(255) Charlotte’s contractions
began: Details of Princess
Charlotte’s delivery are drawn from the
following sources: Eardley Holland, “The
Princess Charlotte of Wales: A Triple
Obstetric Tragedy,” Journal of Obstetrics &
Gynecology of the British
Empire 1951; 58(6): 905–919;
Andrew Friedman, Ernest Kohorn, and Sherwin
Nuland, “Did Princess Charlotte Die of a
Pulmonary Embolism?” British Journal of Obstetrics and
Gynaecology 1988; 95: 683–688;
William Ober, “Obstetrical Events That Shaped
Western European History,” Yale Journal of Biology and
Medicine 1992; 65:
201–210.
(257) hot water
bottles: Hibbert, George IV,
98.
(258) about 300,000:
World Health Organization, “Maternal
Mortality,” September 19, 2019,
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/maternal-mortality,
accessed July 20,
2022.
(258) about one hundred
times: J. Drife, “The Start of
Life: A History of Obstetrics,” Postgraduate Medical
Journal 2002; 78:
311–315.
(258) 1 to 1.5
percent: Laura Helmuth, “The
Disturbing, Shameful History of Childbirth
Deaths,” Slate, September 10, 2013,
https://slate.com/technology/2013/09/death-in-childbirth-doctors-increased-maternal-mortality-in-the-20th-century-are-midwives-better.html,
accessed July 20,
2022.
(258) American advice
book: Tina Cassidy, Birth: The Surprising
History of How We Are Born
(New York: Atlantic Monthly Press,
2006),
245.
(258) filled diaries and
letters: Judith Leavitt,
Brought to Bed:
Childbearing in
America, 1750–1950 (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1986),
33.
(259) It seems
paradoxical: Mihaela Pavlicev,
Roberto Romero, and Philipp Mitteroecker,
“Evolution of the Human Pelvis and Obstructed
Labor: New Explanations of an Old Obstetrical
Dilemma,” American
Journal of Obstetrics &
Gynecology 2020; 222(1): 3–16.
This paper theorizes that the narrow human
pelvis evolved, not only to permit
bipedalism, but also to better support the
weight of human viscera and relatively large
fetuses over a long gestational
period.
(259) walk upright with
ease: Cassidy, Birth,
10.
(259) Anatomical head
size: Helmuth, “The
Disturbing.”
(259) A study of
births: Cassidy, Birth,
23.
(259) At birth, we are
helpless: Ibid.,
17.
(260) who actively
struggled: James Nicopoullos,
“‘Midwifery Is Not a Fit Occupation for a
Gentleman,’” Journal
of Obstetrics and Gynaecology
2003; 23(6): 589–593.
(260) caused the baby to be
formed: Randi Epstein,
Get Me Out: A
History of Childbirth from the Garden of
Eden to the Sperm Bank (New
York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2010),
10.
(260) eggs from the
right: Jacqueline Wolf,
Cesarean Section:
An American History of Risk, Technology,
and Consequence (Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins University Press, 2018),
70.
(260) far beyond
obstetrics: Cassidy, Birth,
27.
(260) burned at the
stake: Harold Ellis, “Dame
Hilda Lloyd: First President of the Royal
College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists,”
Journal of
Perioperative Practice 2009;
19(6): 192-193.
(260) a giant sheet:
Richard Wertz and Dorothy Wertz, Lying-In: A History of
Childbirth in America (New
York: Free Press, 1977), 43,
81.
(262) transported by
carriage: Peter Dunn, “The
Chamberlen Family (1560–1728) and Obstetric
Forceps,” Archives of
Disease in Childhood—Fetal and Neonatal
Edition 1999; 81:
F232–F234.
(262) banged bells:
Epstein, Get Me
Out,
23.
(263) passed down
from: Dunn, “The Chamberlen
Family,” F233.
(263) named François
Mauriceau: Epstein, Get Me Out,
26.
(263) Roger van
Roonhuysen: Drife, “The Start
of Life,” 312.
(263) “English lock”:
Ibid.
(263) wearing a dress:
Wertz, Lying-In,
81.
(263) have never
witnessed: Cassidy, Birth, 133,
138.
(263) applied without
looking: Leavitt, Brought to Bed,
41.
(264) an autopsy:
Holland, “The Princess Charlotte,”
915.
(264) Pulmonary
embolism: Friedman, “Did
Princess Charlotte,”
687.
(264) “as if by an
earthquake”: Hibbert,
George
IV,
102.
(264) Public events were
canceled: Stott, The Lost Queen,
239.
(265) Croft was
condemned: Holland, “The
Princess Charlotte,”
915.
(265) “triple obstetric
tragedy”: Ibid.,
918.
(265) feeble-minded
boy: Humphrey Arthure,
“Princess Charlotte of Wales—a Royal
Tragedy,” Midwife,
Health Visitor & Community
Nurse 1977; 13: 147–149; Ober,
“Obstetrical Events,”
203.
(266) “A woman could
be”: Irvine Loudon, Death in Childbirth: An
International
Study of Maternal Care and Maternal
Mortality 1800–1950 (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1992),
54.
(266) rotting breast
milk: Epstein, Get Me Out,
53.
(266) painting hospital
walls: Sherwin Nuland,
The Doctor’s
Plague: Germs, Childbed Fever, and the
Strange Story of Ignác
Semmelweis (New York: W. W.
Norton & Company, 2003),
62.
(266) burn their
clothes: Ibid.,
58.
(266) on the roofs of
hospitals: Epstein, Get Me Out,
54-55.
(267) 8,000 patients:
Loudon, Death in
Childbirth,
65.
(267) about 11
percent: Ignaz Semmelweis,
The Etiology,
Concept and Prophylaxis of Childbed
Fever, trans. K. Codell Carter
(Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press,
1983), 64.
(267) over 18 percent:
Ibid., 72.
(267) in corridors:
Wertz, Lying-In,
121.
(267) “That they were
afraid”: Nuland, The Doctor’s
Plague,
85.
(268) “To me …
it
appeared”: Semmelweis,
The
Etiology,
81.
(268) He thought
overcrowding: Ibid.,
69.
(268) asked the
priest: Ibid., 71,
73.
(268) Jakob
Kolletschka: Ibid.,
87–89.
(269) government rules
dictated: Nuland, The Doctor’s
Plague,
81.
(269) “Only God
knows”: Semmelweis, The Etiology,
98.
(269) less than 2
percent: Ibid.,
90.
(270) “milk metastasis
theory”: Nuland, The Doctor’s
Plague,
35-36.
(270) tight women’s
petticoats: K. Codell Carter
and Barbara Carter, Childbed Fever: A Scientific Biography
of Ignaz Semmelweis (Westport,
CT: Greenwood Press, 1994),
34.
(270) his immediate
superior: Irvine Loudon,
The Tragedy of
Childbed Fever (New York:
Oxford University Press, 2000),
101.
(270) less than 1
percent: Hollingham, Blood and Guts,
88.
(270) poorly written:
Irvine Loudon, “Semmelweis and His Thesis,”
Journal of the
Royal Society of Medicine
2005; 98: 555.
(270) Few read it:
Semmelweis, The
Etiology,
25.
(270) “I denounce you before
God”: Loudon, The Tragedy,
104.
(271) increasingly
erratic: Nuland, The Doctors’
Plague, 162-163; Semmelweis,
The
Etiology,
57.
(271) a result of his
beating: Nuland, The Doctors’
Plague,
168.
(272) from 1 to 6
percent: Carter, Childbed Fever,
79.
(273) went on for
days: Epstein, Get Me Out,
35.
(273) “The poor
woman”: L. Lewis Wall, “The
Medical Ethics of Dr. J. Marion Sims: A Fresh
Look at the Historical Record,” Journal of Medical
Ethics 2006; 32:
346–350.
(274) “If there was
anything”: J. Marion Sims,
The Story of My
Life (New York: D. Appleton
and Company, 1884),
231.
(274) “Why, doctor”:
Ibid., 233.
(274) employed a
mirror: Seale Harris,
Woman’s Surgeon:
The Life Story of J. Marion
Sims (New York: Macmillan,
1950),
87.
(274) “I saw
everything”: Sims, The Story,
234-235. Sims was actually not the first to
repair a vaginal fistula. Two doctors, John
Peter Mettauer and George Hayward, performed
repairs in 1838 and 1839, respectively. But
Sims was the one who did the most to perfect
and disseminate the technique through
practice and
publications.
(275) at least thirty:
Epstein, Get Me
Out,
43.
(275) silver wire
sutures: Sims, The Story,
245.
(276) vilified by multiple
historians: Barron Lerner,
“Scholars Argue Over Legacy of Surgeon Who
Was Lionized, Then Vilified,” New York Times,
October 28, 2003.
(276) Thomas
Jefferson: Epstein, Get Me Out,
41-42.
(276) a terrible
affliction: Wall, “The Medical
Ethics,” 346–350.
(276) “To the
indomitable”: J. Harry
Thompson, Report:
Columbia Hospital For Women and Lying-In
Asylum (Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1873),
49.
(276) “clamorous”:
Ibid.; Sims, The
Story,
243.
(277) large bottles of
ether: Harold Ellis, “Sir
James Young Simpson: Pioneer of Anaesthesia
in Childbirth,” British Journal of Hospital
Medicine 2020; 81(4):
1-2.
(277) They laughed and
chatted: Cassidy, Birth,
84.
(278) chloroform was
inexpensive: S. W. McGowan,
“Sir James Young Simpson Bart, 150 Years On,”
Scottish Medical
Journal 1997; 42:
185–187.
(278) her baby
“Anaesthesia”: Drife, “The
Start of Life,” 313.
(278) never be selfless
enough: Epstein, Get Me Out,
84.
(278) burned alive:
Cassidy, Birth,
85.
(278) pointed out that
God: Ellis, “Sir James Young
Simpson,” 1.
(278) cited James
4:17: Cassidy, Birth,
85.
(279) “I have the expectant
mother”: Leavitt, Brought to Bed,
121.
(279) make chloroform
safer: Donald Caton, “John
Snow’s Practice of Obstetric Anesthesia,”
Anesthesiology 2000; 92:
247–252.
(279) held her breath:
Hollingham, Blood and
Guts,
77.
(280) fifty-three
minutes: Epstein, Get Me Out,
4.
(280) “the blessed
chloroform”: Caton, “John
Snow’s,” 250.
(280) anesthesia à la
reine: Ober, “Obstetrical Events,”
207.
(281) lost half their
business: Cassidy, Birth,
39.
(281) only 15 percent:
Ibid., 31.
(281) underreported puerperal
fever: Loudon, Death in
Childbirth,
35.
(281) eight out of every
1,000: Ibid.,
153.
(281) more than
250,000: Ibid.,
50.
(281) safer for U.S. mothers in
1800: Wolf, Cesarean
Section, 20,
52.
(281) wealthy women were more
likely: Helmuth, “The
Disturbing.”
(282) “The United
States”: S. Josephine Baker,
“Maternal Mortality in the United States,”
Journal of the
American Medical Association
1927; 89(24):
2016-2017.
(282) a startling 1933
study: The Committee on
Maternal Mortality of the New York Academy of
Medicine, “Maternal Mortalityin New York
City,” Journal of the
American Medical Association
1933; 101(23):
1826–1828.
(282) one in thirty:
Leavitt, Brought to
Bed,
25.
(282) 55 percent:
Ibid., 171.
(283) sinking of the
Titanic: Olivia Gordon, The First Breath: How
Modern Medicine Saves the Most Fragile
Lives (London: Bluebird,
2019), 64-65.
(283) “There is not much
difference”: Epstein,
Get Me
Out,
192.
(284) Boston research
team’s: O. Watkins Smith,
George Van Smith, and David Hurwitz,
“Increased Excretion of Pregnanediol in
Pregnancy from Diethylstilbestrol with
Special Reference to the Prevention of Late
Pregnancy Accidents,” American Journal of Obstetrics &
Gynecology 1946; 51: 411–415;
O. Watkins Smith, “Diethylstilbestrol in the
Prevention and Treatment of Complications of
Pregnancy,” American
Journal of Obstetrics &
Gynecology 1948; 56(5):
821–834.
(284) lifetime’s amount of
estrogen: Epstein, Get Me Out,
136.
(285) diseases in
animals: Ibid.,
140.
(285) University of Chicago
study: W. J. Dieckmann, M. E.
Davis, L. M. Rynkiewicz, et al., “Does the
Administration of Diethylstilbestrol
During Pregnancy
Have Therapeutic Value?” American Journal of
Obstetrics & Gynecology
1953; 66(5):
1062–1081.
(285) Three other clinical
trials: Robert Hoover,
Marianne Hyer, Ruth Pfeiffer, et al.,
“Adverse Health Outcomes in Women Exposed In
Utero to Diethylstilbestrol,” New England Journal of
Medicine 2011; 365:
1304–1314.
(285) until the mother of
one: Epstein, Get Me Out,
144.
(285) His 1971 study:
Arthur Herbst, Howard Ulfelder, and David
Poskanzer, “Adenocarcinoma of the Vagina:
Association with Maternal Stilbestrol Therapy
with Tumor Appearance in Young Women,”
New England
Journal of Medicine 1971; 284:
878–881.
(286) five to ten
million: Casey Reed and
Suzanne Fenton, “Exposure to
Diethylstilbestrol During Sensitive Life
Stages: A Legacy of Heritable Health
Effects,” Birth
Defects Research Part C: Embryo
Today 2013; 99(2):
134–146.
(286) increased risk
for: Hoover, “Adverse Health
Outcomes,” 1304.
(286) some studies
indicate: Taher Al Jishi and
Consolato Sergi, “Current Perspective of
Diethylstilbestrol (DES) Exposure in Mothers
and Offspring,” Reproductive Toxicology 2017;
71: 71–77; Retha Newbold, “Lessons Learned
from Perinatal Exposure to
Diethylstilbestrol,” Toxicology and Applied
Pharmacology 2004; 199:
142–150.
(286) For eighteen
years: Epstein, Get Me Out,
148.
(286) “biological time
bomb”: Al Jishi, “Current
Perspective,” 71.
(286) seven full-time:
Bridget Kuehn, “Frances Kelsey Honored for
FDA Legacy,” Journal
of the American Medical
Association 2010; 304(19):
2109–2112.
(287) toxicity data
inadequate: Trent Stephens and
Rock Brynner, Dark
Remedy: The Impact of Thalidomide and Its
Revival as a Vital Medicine
(Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing, 2001),
48-49. The FDA’s chemist reviewing the
application was Lee Geismar, and the
pharmacologist was Jiro
Oyama.
(287) not harmful to the
fetus: James Essinger and
Sandra Koutzenko, Frankie: How One Woman Prevented a
Pharmaceutical Disaster (North
Palm Beach, FL: Blue Sparrow Books, 2018),
154.
(287) more than fifty
times: Stephens, Dark Remedy,
50.
(287) displays
pressure: Ibid., 50-51;
Essinger, Frankie, 113,
149-150.
(287) nitpicky
bureaucrat: Linda Bren,
“Frances Oldham Kelsey: FDA Medical Reviewer
Leaves Her Mark on History,” FDA Consumer
magazine 2001; 35(2):
24–29.
(287) essentially
testimonials: Richard
McFadyen, “Thalidomide in America: A Brush
with Tragedy,” Clio
Medica 1976; 11(2):
79–93.
(288) “untoward
reactions”: Stephens,
Dark
Remedy,
52.
(288) tried to go
over: Essinger, Frankie,
142-143.
(288) six times:
Stephens, Dark
Remedy,
53.
(288) up to 100,000:
Essinger, Frankie,
15.
(288) seventeen phocomelia
cases: Geoff Watts, “Frances
Oldham Kelsey,” Lancet 2015; 386:
1334.
(290) 4.5 percent:
Paul Placek, Selma Taffel, and Mary Moien,
“1986 C-Sections Rise; VBACs Inch Upward,”
American Journal
of Public Health 1988; 78(5):
562-563.
(290) approximately 32
percent: Wolf, Cesarean
Section,
4-5.
(290) 55 percent
overall: Marina Lopes,
“C-Sections Are All the Rage in Brazil. So
Too, Now, Are Fancy Parties to Watch Them,”
Washington
Post, June 12,
2019.
(290) 10 percent:
Michael Greene, “Two Hundred Years of
Progress in the Practice of Midwifery,”
New England
Journal of Medicine 2012;
367(18): 1732–1740.
(291) over eight
million: Editorial, “Towards
the Global Coverage of a Unified Registry of
IVF Outcomes,” Reproductive BioMedicine
Online 2019; 38(2),
1.
(291) About
two-thirds: Jaime Natoli,
Deborah Ackerman, Suzanne McDermott, et al.,
“Prenatal Diagnosis of Down Syndrome: A
Systematic Review of Termination Rates
(1995–2011),” Prenatal Diagnosis 2012; 32:
142–153.
(292) Several for-profit
companies: Patrick Turley,
Michelle Meyer, Nancy Wang, et al., “Problems
with Using Polygenic Scores to Select
Embryos,” New England
Journal of Medicine 2021;
385(1): 78–86.
(292) the first baby
selected: Carey Goldberg,
“Picking Embryos with Best Health Odds Sparks
New DNA Debate,” Bloomberg.com,
September 17, 2021,
https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-09-17/picking-embryos-with-best-health-odds-sparks-new-dna-debate,
accessed July 21, 2022; Pete Shanks, “The
First Polygenic Risk Score Baby,” Biopolitical
Times, September 30, 2021,
https://www.geneticsandsociety.org/biopolitical-times/first-polygenic-risk-score-baby,
accessed July 21,
2022.
(292) online Genomic Prediction
panel discussion: Genomic
Prediction Clinical Laboratories, “Rank
Ordering Embryos for Transfer: Patient and
Clinician Perspectives on PGT-P,” April 10,
2021,
https://infoproc.blogspot.com/2021/04/first-baby-born-from-polygenically.html,
accessed July 21,
2022.
(292) “Part of that
duty”: Goldberg, “Picking
Embryos.”
(292) “compounding
benefits”: Shanks, “The First
Polygenic.”
(292) Many scientists
question: Turley, “Problems
with Using,” 78–86.
(295) “In identifying some
individuals”: Kelly Ormond,
Douglas Mortlock, Derek Scholes, et al.,
“Human Germline Genome Editing,” American Journal of Human
Genetics 2017; 101:
167–176.
(295) “Evolution has
been”: Patrick Skerrett,
“Experts Debate: Are We Playing with Fire
When We Edit Human Genes?” Stat, November
17, 2015,
https://www.statnews.com/2015/11/17/gene-editing-embryo-crispr/,
accessed July 21,
2022.
(295) about seventy-five
nations: Francoise Baylis,
Marcy Darnovsky, Katie Hasson, et al., “Human
Germline and Heritable Genome Editing: The
Global Policy Landscape,” CRISPR Journal
2020; 3(5): 365–377.
(296) scientists at Sun
Yat-sen: Gina Kolata, “Chinese
Scientists Edit Genes of Human Embyros,
Raising Concerns,” New York Times, April 23,
2015.
(296) Only four of the
embryos: Puping Liang, Yanwen
Xu, Xiya Zhang, et al., “CRISPR/Cas9-Mediated
Gene Editing in Human Tripronuclear Zygotes,”
Protein &
Cell 2015; 6(5): 363–372;
Mukherjee, The
Gene,
478.
(296) he announced to the
world: Gina Kolata, Sui-Lee
Wee, and Pam Belluck, “Chinese Scientist
Claims to Use Crispr to Make First
Genetically Edited Babies,” New York Times,
November 26, 2018.
(297) against West Nile
virus: William Glass, David
McDermott, Jean Lim, et al., “CCR5 Deficiency
Increases Risk of Symptomatic West Nile Virus
Infection,” Journal
of Experimental Science 2006;
203(1): 35–40.
(297) over one hundred
Chinese: David Cyranoski and
Heidi Ledford, “Genome-Edited Baby Claim
Provokes International Outcry,” Nature 2018;
563: 607-608.
(297) three years in
prison: David Cyranoski, “What
CRISPR-Baby Prison Sentences Mean for
Research,” Nature 2020; 577:
154-155.
(297) Huntington’s
disease: Walter Isaacson,
The Code Breaker:
Jennifer Doudna, Gene Editing, and the
Future of the Human Race (New
York: Simon & Schuster, 2021),
341-342. Isaacson’s book does an excellent
job of weighing the risks and benefits, and
ethical implications, of germ line gene
modification.
(298) do not feel germ line
experimentation: Ibid.,
323-324, 330–332.
الخاتمة
(299) “It
helps a man”: Osler,
“Chauvinism in Medicine,”
689.
(302) “Chance favors the prepared
mind”: Barry, The Great
Influenza,
68.
(302) “When they do
appear”: Ernst Chain, “The
Quest for New Biodynamic Substances,”
Perspectives in
Biology and Medicine 1967;
10(2): 208.
(303) more than 30
percent: Sally Rockey,
“Comparing Success
Rates, Award
Rates, and Funding Rates,” National
Institutes of Health, Office of Extramural
Research, March 5, 2014,
https://nexus.od.nih.gov/all/2014/03/05/comparing-success-award-funding-rates/,
accessed July 22,
2022.
(303) approximately 20
percent: National Institutes
of Health, “Extramural Research Overview for
Fiscal Year 2020,” May 19, 2021,
https://www.niaid.nih.gov/grants-contracts/fy-2020-award-data,
accessed July 22,
2022.
(303) The system also
appears: Aaron Carroll, “Why
the Medical Research Grant System Could Be
Costing Us Great Ideas,” New York Times,
June 18, 2018; Diego Oliveira, Yifang Ma,
Teresa Woodruff, et al., “Comparison of
National Institutes of Health Grant Amounts
to First-Time Male and Female Principal
Investigators,” Journal of the American Medical
Association 2019; 321(9):
898–900.
(303) fewer than one in
six: Gina Kolata, “So Many
Research Scientists, So Few Professorships,”
New York
Times, July 14, 2016,
3.
(304) median annual
salary: Rodoniki Athanasiadou,
Adriana Bankston,
McKenzie Carlisle, et al., “Assessing the
Landscape of US Postdoctoral Salaries,”
Studies in
Graduate and Postdoctoral
Education 2018; 9(2):
213–242.
(304) 55 percent:
Chris Woolston, “Uncertain Prospects for
Postdoctoral Researchers,” Nature 2020;
588: 181–184.
(304) Emmanuelle
Charpentier: Kolata, “So Many
Research.”
(304) approximately
half: Editorial, “Stop
Exploitation of Foreign Postdocs in the
United States,” Nature 2018; 563:
444.
(306) more than half:
Patrick Boyle, “More Women Than Men Are
Enrolled in Medical School,” Association of American
Medical Colleges, December 9,
2019,
https://www.aamc.org/news-insights/more-women-men-are-enrolled-medical-school,
accessed July 22,
2022.
(307) “Methuselah
gene”: Robin Smith and Max
Gomez, Cells Are the
New Cure: The Cutting Edge Medical
Breakthroughs That Are Transforming Our
Health (Dallas, TX: BenBella
Books, 2017), 191.
(307) interested in
telomeres: Ibid., 193–197;
Francesca Rossiello, Diana Jurk, Joao Passos,
et al., “Telomere Dysfunction in Ageing and
Age-Related Diseases,” Nature Cell
Biology 2022; 24: 135–147. On
the other hand, enhancing telomerase might
also play a role in promoting cancerous
growth. Inhibiting telomerase in certain
situations might someday prove a helpful
treatment for cancer.
