المراجع والقراءات الإضافية
الفصل الأول: الاقتصاد والسلوك
There are
many introductions to behavioural economics,
including:
Ariely, D.
(2008) Predictably
Irrational—The Hidden Forces that Shape
Our Decisions, New York:
Harper Collins.
Gigerenzer,
G. (2014) Risk Savvy:
How to Make Good Decisions,
London: Penguin Books.
Kahneman, D.
(2011) Thinking, Fast
and Slow, London: Allen
Lane.
Thaler, R.
H. (2015) Misbehaving: The Making of Behavioural
Economics, London: Allen
Lane.
For more
academic introductions, which assume a
background knowledge of economics,
see:
Baddeley, M.
(2013) Behavioural
Economics and Finance,
Routledge: Abingdon.
Earl, P. E.
and Kemp, S. (1999) The Elgar Companion to Consumer Research
and Economic Psychology,
Cheltenham: Edward
Elgar.
Laibson, D.
and List, J. E. (2015) Principles of
(behavioral) economics, American Economic
Review 105(5):
385–90.
There is a
large literature on rationality in economics,
for example, see:
Simon, H. A.
(1955) A behavioural model of rational
choice, Quarterly
Journal of Economics 69:
99–118.
Leibenstein,
H. (1976) Beyond
Economic Man, Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University
Press.
Smith, V. L.
(2003) Constructivist and ecological
rationality in economics, American Economic
Review 93(3):
465–508.
الفصل الثاني: الدوافع والحوافز
For
behavioural economists’ analyses of
incentives and motivation,
see:
Ariely, D.
A., Bracha, A., and Meier, S. (2009) Doing
good or doing well? Image motivation and
monetary incentives in behaving prosocially,
American Economic
Review 99(1):
544–55.
Bénabou, R.
and Tirole, J. (2006) Incentives and
prosocial behavior, American Economic Review
96(5): 1652–78.
Frey, B. S.
and Jegen, R. (2001) How intrinsic motivation
is crowded out and in, Journal of Economic
Surveys 15(5):
589–611.
For analyses
of social incentives and gift exchange in
labour markets, see:
Akerlof, G.
A. (1982) Labor contracts as partial gift
exchange, Quarterly
Journal of Economics 97(4):
543–69.
The nursery
school study described in this chapter is
explained in detail
in:
Gneezy, U.
and Rustichini, A. (2000) A fine is a price,
Journal of Legal
Studies 29(1):
1–17.
الفصل الثالث: التفاعلات الاجتماعية
Some seminal
papers on social preferences and related
experimental studies
include:
Berg, J. E.,
Dikhaut, J., and McCabe, K. (1995) Trust,
reciprocity and social history, Games and Economic
Behavior 10(1):
122–42.
Fehr, E. and
Gächter, S. (2000) Cooperation and punishment
in public goods experiments, American Economic
Review 90(4):
980–94.
Fehr, E. and
Schmidt, K. M. (1999) Theory of fairness,
competition and cooperation, Quarterly Journal of
Economics 114(3):
817–68.
Güth, W.,
Schmittberger, R., and Schwarze, B. (1982) An
experimental analysis of ultimatum
bargaining, Journal
of Economic Behavior and
Organisation 3:
367–88.
Henrich, J.,
Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Camerer, C., Fehr, E.,
Gintis, H., and McElreath, R. (2001) In
search of homo
economicus: behavioral
experiments in 15 small-scale societies,
American Economic
Review 91(2):
73–8.
For more
detail on neuroeconomic studies of herding,
see:
Baddeley, M.
(2010) Herding, social influence and economic
decision-making: socio-psychological and
neuroscientific analyses, Philosophical Transactions
of the Royal Society B
365(1538): 281–90.
Singer, T.
and Fehr, E. (2005) The neuroeconomics of
mind reading and empathy, American Economic
Review 95(2):
340–5.
From
economics, the seminal papers on herding and
social learning
include:
Anderson, L.
and Holt, C. (1996) Classroom games:
information cascades, Journal of Economic
Perspectives 10(4):
187–93.
Banerjee, A.
(1992) A simple model of herd behavior,
Quarterly Journal
of Economics 107(3):
797–817.
Bikhchandani, S., Hirshleifer, D., and
Welch, I. (1998) Learning from the behavior
of others: conformity, fads, and
informational cascades, Journal of Economic
Perspectives 12(3):
151–70.
Jan
Surowiecki has written an excellent
lay-person’s
introduction:
Surowiecki,
J. (2004) The Wisdom
of Crowds: Why the Many Are Smarter than
the Few, London:
Abacus.
For an
analysis of herding in scientific research
and expert opinion,
see:
Baddeley, M.
(2015) Herding, social influences and
behavioural bias in scientific research,
European
Molecular Biology Organisation
Reports 16(8):
902–5.
Baddeley, M.
(2013) Herding, social influence and expert
opinion, Journal of
Economic Methodology 20(1):
37–45.
For an early
analysis of mirror neurons and imitation,
see:
Rizzolati,
G. and Craighero, L. (2004) The mirror neuron
system, Annual
Reviews of Neuroscience 27:
169–92.
For more on
identity in behavioural economics,
see:
Akerlof, G.
A. and Kranton, R. E. (2011) Identity Economics—How our
Identities Shape Our Work, Wages and
Wellbeing, Princeton:
Princeton University
Press.
Solomon
Asch’s original line experiments to capture
group influence are described
in:
Asch, S. E.
(1955) Opinions and social pressure,
Scientific
American 193(5):
31–5.
الفصل الرابع: التفكير السريع
The choice
experiments from this chapter are described
in:
Iyengar, S.
and Lepper, M. (2000) When choice is
demotivating, Journal
of Personality and Social
Psychology 79(6):
995–1006.
The evidence
about choice overload is mixed, and for some
meta-analyses of the evidence,
see:
Chernev, A.,
Böckenholt, U., and Goodman, J. (2015) Choice
overload: A conceptual review and
meta-analysis, Journal of Consumer
Psychology 25(2):
333–58.
Scheibehenne, B., Greifeneder, R., and Todd,
P. M. (2010) Can there ever be too many
options? A meta-analytic review of choice
overload, Journal of
Consumer Research 37(3):
409–25.
For Kahneman
and Tversky’s seminal paper on heuristics and
bias, see:
Tversky, A.
and Kahneman, D. (1974) Judgement under
uncertainty: Heuristics and biases, Science 185:
1124–31.
On cognitive
dissonance, see:
Akerlof, G.
A. and Dickens, W. T. (1982) The economic
consequences of cognitive dissonance,
American Economic
Review 72(3):
307–19.
For Thaler
and Benartzi’s application of default
options, see:
Thaler, R.
H. and Benartzi, S. (2004) Save More
TomorrowTM:
using behavioral economics to increase
employee saving, Journal of Political Economy
112(1): S164–S187.
الفصل الخامس: القرارات التي تنطوي على مخاطر
The seminal
paper on prospect theory
is:
Kahneman, D.
and Tversky, A. (1979) Prospect theory—an
analysis of decision under risk, Econometrica
47(2): 263–92.
Regret
theory is introduced
in:
Loomes, G.
and Sugden, R. (1982) Regret theory: an
alternative theory of choice under
uncertainty, Economic
Journal 92(368):
805–24.
The other
research on loss aversion, endowment effects,
and status quo bias referred to in this
chapter includes:
Kahneman,
D., Knetsch, J., and Thaler, R. (1991)
Anomalies: The endowment effect, loss
aversion and status quo bias, Journal of Economic
Perspectives 5(1):
193–206.
Viscusi, W.
Kip, Magat, W. A., and Huber, J. (1987) An
investigation of the rationality of consumer
valuations of multiple health risks,
Rand Journal of
Economics 18(4):
465–79.
الفصل السادس: القرارات الزمنية
The seminal
papers on time discounting cited in this
chapter include research from neuroscience
and behavioural ecology, as well as
behavioural economics and economic
psychology. The studies and analyses cited
include:
Ainslie, G.
(1974) Impulse control in pigeons, Journal of the Experimental
Analysis of Behavior 21(3):
485–9.
Angeletos,
G.-M., Laibson, D., Repetto, A., Tobacman,
J., and Weinberg, S. (2001) The hyperbolic
consumption model: Calibration, simulation,
and empirical evaluation, Journal of Economic
Perspectives 15(3):
47–68.
Camerer, C.
F., Babcock, L., Loewenstein, G., and Thaler,
R. H. (1997) Labour supply of New York City
cab drivers: One day at a time, Quarterly Journal of
Economics 112(2):
407–41.
DellaVigna,
S. and Malmendier, U. (2006) Paying not to go
to the gym, American
Economic Review 96(3):
694–719.
Duflo, E.,
Kremer, M., and Robinson, J. (2011) Nudging
farmers to use fertilizer: Theory and
experimental evidence from Kenya, American Economic
Review 101(6):
2350–90.
Glimcher, P.
W., Kable, J., and Louie, K. (2007)
Neuroeconomic studies of impulsivity: No or
just as soon as possible, American Economic
Review 97(2):
142–7.
Laibson, D.
(1997) Golden eggs and hyperbolic
discounting, Quarterly Journal of
Economics 112:
443–78.
McClure, S.
M., Laibson, D. I., Loewenstein, G., and
Cohen, J. D. (2004) Separate neural systems
value immediate and delayed rewards,
Science 306:
503–7.
Mischel, W.,
Shoda, Y., and Rodriguez, M. L. (1989) Delay
of gratification in children, Science
244(4907): 933–8.
Mulcahy, N.
J. and Call, J. (2006) Apes save tools for
future use, Science 312:
1038–40.
O’Donoghue,
T. and Rabin, M. (2001) Choice and
procrastination, Quarterly Journal of
Economics 116(1):
121–60.
Read, D.,
Loewenstein, G., and Montague, M. (1999)
Choice bracketing, Journal of Risk and
Uncertainty 19(1–3):
171–97.
Rick, S. and
Loewenstein, G. (2008) Intangibility in
intemporal choice, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society B, 363(1511):
3813–24.
Strotz, R.
H. (1955) Myopia and inconsistency in dynamic
utility maximization, Review of Economic Studies
23: 165–80.
Thaler, R.
H. (1999) Mental accounting matters,
Journal of
Behavioral Decision Making 12:
183–206.
Warner, J.
T. and Pleeter, S. (2001) The personal
discount rate: Evidence from military
downsizing programs, American Economic Review
91(1): 33–53.
الفصل السابع: الشخصيات والحالات المزاجية والانفعالات
For an
account of the Big Five personality tests and
the cognitive reflexivity test (CRT),
see:
Frederick,
S. (2005) Cognitive reflection and
decision-making, Journal of Economic
Perspectives 19(4):
25–42.
McCrae, R.
R. and Costa, P. T. (1987) Validation of the
five-factor model of personality across
instruments and observers, Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology 52:
81–90.
The answer
to the ‘bats and balls’ CRT question is that
the ball costs 5
cents.
On impacts
of incentives on experimental participants’
responses, see:
Gneezy, U.
and Rustichini, A. (2000) Pay enough or don’t
pay at all, Quarterly
Journal of Economics 115(3):
791–810.
For some of
David Cesarini and colleagues’ research into
genetics and personality,
see:
Cesarini,
D., Dawes, C. T., Johannesson, M.,
Lichtenstein, P., and Wallace, B. (2009)
Genetic variation in preferences for giving
and risk taking, Quarterly Journal of
Economics 124(2):
809–42.
For other
references to research on personality and
economic life chances,
see:
Borghans,
L., Duckworth, A. L., Heckman, J. J., and Ter
Weel, B. (2008) The economics and psychology
of personality traits, Journal of Human
Resources 43(4):
972–1059.
Heckman, J.,
Moon, S. H., Pinto, R., Savelyev, P., and
Yavitz, A. (2010) The rate of return to the
HighScope Perry Preschool Program, Journal of Public
Economics 94(1-2):
114–28.
Mischel, W.,
Shoda, Y., and Rodriguez, M. L. (1989) Delay
of gratification in children, Science
244(4907): 933–1038.
For the
references cited relating to emotions,
see:
Elster, J.
(1998) Emotions and economic theory,
Journal of
Economic Literature 36(1):
47–74.
Le Doux, J.
E. (1996) The
Emotional Brain, New York:
Simon &
Schuster.
For Dan
Ariely’s work with colleagues on emotions and
preferences, see:
Lee, L.,
Amir, O., and Ariely, D. (2009) In search of
homo economicus: Cognitive noise and the role
of emotion in preference consistency,
Journal of
Consumer Research 36(2):
173–87.
The
literature on addiction is a response to Gary
Becker’s rational addiction
model:
Becker, G.
S. and Murphy, K. M. (1988) A theory of
rational addiction, Journal of Political Economy
96(4): 675–700.
Behavioural
economists’ alternative analyses of addiction
include:
Baddeley, M.
(2013) Bad habits, Behavioural Economics and
Finance, Routledge: Abingdon,
chapter 10.
Bernheim, B.
D. and Rangel, A. (2004) Addiction and
cue-triggered decision processes, American Economic
Review 94(5):
1558–90.
Laibson, D.
I. (2001) A cue-theory of consumption,
Quarterly Journal
of Economics 116(1):
81–119.
Loewenstein,
G. (1996) Out of control: Visceral influences
on decision making, Organizational Behavior and Human
Decision Processes 65(3):
272–92.
Camerer et
al.’s survey papers are good introductions to
neuroeconomics, for example,
see:
Camerer, C.
F., Loewenstein, G., and Prelec, D. (2005)
Neuroeconomics: How neuroscience can inform
economics, Journal of
Economic Literature 43(1):
9–64.
For
introductions to dual systems models and the
somatic marker hypothesis,
see:
Damasio, A.
R. (1994) Descartes’
Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human
Brain, London:
Vintage.
Kahneman, D.
(2003) Maps of bounded rationality:
Psychology for behavioral economics,
American Economic
Review 93(5):
1449–75.
Kahneman, D.
(2011) Thinking, Fast
and Slow, London: Allen
Lane.
For the
neuroeconomic analyses of emotions in
economics and finance cited in this chapter,
see:
Coates, J.
M. and Herbert, J. (2008) Endogenous steroids
and financial risk taking on a London trading
floor, Proceedings of
the National Academy of
Sciences 105(16):
6167–72.
Cohen, J. D.
(2005) The vulcanization of the human brain:
A neural perspective on interactions between
cognition and emotion, Journal of Economic
Perspectives 19(4):
3–24.
Knutson, B.
and Bossaerts, P. (2007) Neural antecedents
of financial decisions, Journal of
Neuroscience 27(31):
8174–7.
Kuhnen, C.
and Knutson, B. (2005) The neural basis of
financial risk taking, Neuron 47(5):
763–70.
Lo, A. W.
and Repin, D. V. (2002) The psychophysiology
of real-time financial risk processing,
Journal of
Cognitive Neuroscience 14(3):
323–39.
Sanfey, A.
G., Rilling, J. K., Aronson, J. A., Nystrom,
L. E., and Cohen, J. D. (2003) The neural
basis of economic decision-making in the
Ultimatum Game, Science 300:
1755–8.
Shiv, B.,
Loewenstein, G., Bechara, A., Damasio, H.,
and Damasio, A. R. (2005) Investment
behaviour and the negative side of emotion,
Psychological
Science 16(6):
435–9.
Smith, K.
and Dickhaut, J. (2005) Economics and
emotions: Institutions matter, Games and Economic
Behavior 52:
316–35.
Tuckett, D.
(2011) Minding the
Markets: An Emotional Finance View of
Financial Instability,
Basingstoke: Palgrave
Macmillan.
الفصل الثامن: السلوك في الاقتصاد الكلي
Important
early writings in behavioural macroeconomics
include:
Katona, G.
(1975) Psychological
Economics, New York:
Elsevier.
Keynes, J.
M. (1936) The General
Theory of Employment, Interest and
Money, London: Macmillan,
especially chapter 12.
Minsky, H.
(1986) Stabilizing an
Unstable Economy, New Haven,
CT: Yale University
Press.
George
Akerlof covered many of the key themes in his
Nobel Prize lecture:
Akerlof, G.
(2002) Behavioral macroeconomics and
macroeconomic behavior, American Economic
Review 92(3):
411–33.
Tali Sharot
has done some interesting research on
optimism bias, introduced
in:
Sharot, T.
(2011) The Optimism
Bias: Why We’re Wired to Look on the
Bright Side, New York:
Pantheon Books.
Other
studies on optimism bias cited here
include:
Ifcher, J.
and Zarghamee, H. (2011) Happiness and time
preference: The effect of positive affect in
a random-assignment experiment, American Economic
Review 101(7):
3109–29.
National
Audit Office (2013) Over-optimism in
government projects. Report by the UK’s
National Audit Office.
Some modern
behavioural macroeconomic analyses and models
include:
Akerlof, G.
and Shiller, R. (2009) Animal Spirits: How Human
Psychology Drives the Economy and Why it
Matters for Global Capitalism,
Princeton: Princeton University
Press.
Baddeley, M.
(2016) Behavioural macroeconomics: Time,
optimism and animal spirits, in R. Frantz,
S.-H. Chen, K. Dopfer, F. Heukelom, and S.
Mousavi (eds), Routledge Handbook of Behavioural
Economics, New York:
Routledge, pp. 266–79.
De Grauwe,
P. (2012) Booms and busts in economic
activity: A behavioural explanation,
Journal of
Economic Behavior and
Organisation 83(3):
484–501.
Farmer, R.
E. A. (2012) Confidence, crashes and animal
spirits, Economic
Journal 122(559):
155–72.
Howitt, R
and McAfee, R. P. (1992) Animal spirits,
American Economic
Review 82(3):
493–507.
Woodford, M.
(1990) Learning to believe in sunspots,
Econometrica 58:
277–307.
For the
analyses of financial market bubbles and
instability, including the references
mentioned in this chapter exploring how mood
and weather might affect financial markets,
see:
Hirshleifer,
D. and Shumway, T. (2003) Good day sunshine:
Stock returns and the weather, Journal of
Finance 58(3):
1009–32.
Kamstra, M.
J., Kramer, L. A., and Levi, M. D. (2003)
Winter blues: A SAD stock market cycle,
American Economic
Review 93(1):
324–43.
Kindleberger, C. P. (2001) Manias, Panics and Crashes:
A History of Financial Crises
(4th edition), Hoboken, NJ: John
Wiley.
For an
introduction to Robert Prechter and others on
social mood, see:
Casti, J. L.
(2010) Mood Matters:
From Rising Skirt Lengths to the Collapse
of World Powers, Berlin:
Springer-Verlag.
Some
introductions to happiness and well-being
include:
Haybron, D.
M. (2013) Happiness:
A Very Short Introduction,
Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Layard, R.
L. (2005) Happiness:
Lessons from a New Science,
London: Penguin.
O’Donnell,
G., Deaton, A., Durand, M., Halpern, D., and
Layard, R. (2014) Wellbeing and Policy, London:
Legatum Institute.
Oswald, A.
J., and Wu, S. (2010) Objective confirmation
of subjective measures of human well-being:
Evidence from the U.S.A., Science
327(5965): 576–79.
The World
Bank, Happiness Report, various years,
Washington, DC: World Bank.
(http://worldhappiness.report).
الفصل التاسع: السلوك الاقتصادي والسياسة العامة
Influential
introductions to behavioural economics for
policy-makers include:
Dolan, P.,
Hallsworth, M., Halpern, D., King, D., and
Vlaev, I. (2010) Mindspace—Influencing Behaviour Through
Public Policy, London: Cabinet
Office/Institute for
Government.
Schultz, P.
W., Nolan, J. M., Cialdini, R. B., Goldstein,
N. J., and Griskevicius, V. (2007) The
constructive, destructive, and reconstructive
power of social norms, Psychological
Science 18(5):
429–34.
Thaler, R.
and Sunstein, C. (2008) Nudge—Improving Decisions
about Health, Wealth and
Happiness, New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press.
For a survey
of behavioural economic insights around
energy:
Baddeley, M.
(2015) Behavioural approaches to managing
household energy consumption, in F.
Beckenbach and W. Kahlenborn (eds), New Perspectives for
Environmental Policies through
Behavioural Economics, Berlin:
Springer, pp.
2013–235.
Also, Cass
Sunstein has written deeply and thoughtfully
about policy nudges built around default
options:
Sunstein, C.
(2015) Choosing Not
to Choose: Understanding the Value of
Choice, Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
