ملاحظات
مقدمة
(1)
The Tree of Life is a term I
deploy, much like Charles Darwin as well
as contemporary scientists, to refer to
the idea that shared common descent among
the various biological groups on Earth
can be depicted—although imperfectly—by
an evolutionary tree, as a visual
metaphor of the relatedness of different
species.
(2)
Dakin et al. (2016); Freeman
(2012); Freeman and Hare (2015). See also
Yorzinski et al. (2013, 2015,
2017).
(3)
See, for example, Talandier
et al. (2002,
2006).
(4)
Nishida et al. (2000); Suda
et al. (1998); Webb
(2007).
(5)
Some types of earthquakes
generate atmospheric disruptions that
alter patterns in the electrically
charged particles in the outer part of
the Earth’s atmosphere (the ionosphere);
this phenomenon can be measured by
tracking anomalies in radio signals
between ground receivers and satellites.
This coupling between the lithosphere
(the Earth’s mantle and crust) and the
atmosphere is known to scientists as
coseismic ionospheric disturbance (CID):
Heki (2011); J. Liu et al. (2011); H. Liu
et al. (2021).
(6)
Feder (2018); Narins et al.
(2016); NOAA Infrasonics Program
(2020).
(7)
French et al. (2009). See
also Bedard and George (2000). Some of
the microphones used to listen to Earth’s
passive infrasound are part of the
worldwide International Monitoring System
(IMS) that was created to verify
compliance with the Comprehensive Nuclear
Test-Ban Treaty. The primary purpose of
the IMS is to detect nuclear testing, but
it also detects data on a variety of
climatological and geological
phenomena.
(8)
Bakker et al. (2014);
Gagliano (2013a, 2013b); Gagliano,
Mancuso, et al. (2012); Gagliano, Renton,
et al. (2012); Ibanez and Hawker (2021);
Surlykke and Miller
(1985).
(9)
Masterton et al. (1969);
Sales (2012).
(10)
For recent studies on
ultrasonic communication by primates, see
Arch and Narins (2008); Gursky (2015,
2019); Geerah et al. (2019); Klenova et
al. (2021); Ramsier et al. (2012); Sales
(2010); and Zimmerman (2018). For some of
the earliest studies on ultrasonic
communication in bats, mice, moths, and
porpoises, see Griffin (1958); Kellogg et
al. (1953); Noirot (1966); Pierce (1948);
and Roeder (1966).
(11)
Jones
(2005).
(12)
Bats’ echolocation calls
have been recorded at 130 decibels, the
pain threshold for human hearing: Jones
(2005).
(13)
D. Hill
(2008).
(14)
For example, a
continental-scale bioacoustics
observatory has been launched for the
Australian continent, which provides a
“direct and permanent record of
terrestrial soundscapes through
continuous ecoregions, including those
periodically subject to fire and flood,
when manual surveys are dangerous or
impossible” (Roe et al. 2021). In the US,
large bioacoustics monitoring frameworks
have been set up, including a network of
over two thousand listening stations in
the Sierra Nevada (Reid et al. 2021;
Wood, Gutiérrez, et al. 2019; Wood,
Popescu, et al. 2019; Wood, Klinck, et
al. 2021; Wood, Kryshak, et al.
2021).
(15)
Gibb et al. (2019); Hill et
al. (2018); Whytock and Christie
(2017).
(16)
Hoffmann et al. (2012); King
and Janik (2013); King et al. (2013);
Marconi et al. (2020); Melotti et al.
(2021); Slobodchikoff et al. (1991);
Slobodchikoff, Paseka, et al. (2009);
Slobodchikoff, Perla, et al. (2009);
Vergara and Mikus
(2019).
(17)
A note on wording: This
book uses the terms sound
and vocalizations rather
than “noise.” The term noise
was often used to refer to nonhuman
vocalizations in the past, but its
etymology conveys an implicit
meaning: disturbance, disharmony. The
word’s Latin roots are also found in
words like nausea (seasickness),
nocere (to harm), and
noxia (nuisance). I
reserve the term noise to
refer to environmental
pollution.
(18)
Technical Committee on
Bioacoustics. See
https://tcabasa.org/.
(19)
More precisely,
bioacoustics focuses on the study of
animal communication and associated
behavior; auditory capacities and
auditory mechanisms of animals; sound
production anatomy and
neurophysiology of animals; and
biosonar.
(20)
Truax and Barrett
(2011).
(21)
Cities have soundscapes
too. The inventor of the term
soundscape, Michael
Southworth, first focused on urban
noise. See Southworth (1967,
1969).
(22)
Farina (2018); Farina
and Gage (2017); Ritts and Bakker
(2021); Sueur and Farina (2015); Xie
et al. (2020).
(23)
Carruthers-Jones et al.
(2019).
(24)
Benson
(2010).
(25)
Farley et al.
(2018).
(26)
Machine learning is a
branch of artificial intelligence
(and hence computer science) that
seeks to emulate human intelligence
by developing computational
algorithms to analyze and draw
inferences from patterns in datasets.
In some cases, algorithms can learn
without following explicit
instructions, and can execute tasks
(such as pattern recognition) much
faster than humans. There are several
different types of machine learning,
a detailed discussion of which is
beyond the scope of this book. For a
general introduction and critique of
the limits of AI, see Marcus and
Davis (2019).
(27)
See, for example,
Bijsterveld (2019); Darras et al.
(2019); and Mustafa et al.
(2019).
(28)
Long-duration acoustic
recordings of the environment can
record continuously for weeks or
months and thereby generate terabytes
of data, which are challenging to
analyze using traditional methods.
Acoustic monitoring has several
benefits: better spatial and temporal
coverage; objectivity (versus
traditional in-person observations,
which are observer dependent); and
persistence (recordings can be stored
over time, enabling longitudinal
comparisons). Machine learning
analysis can be a powerful method,
but is typically time consuming to
prepare. Supervised machine learning
methods require high-quality
annotated data as training datasets
for the algorithms. Preparing these
labeled datasets is laborious, time
consuming, and costly. Active
learning is one method that can be
used to reduce this burden; in cases
where raw data is available but
labeled data is scarce, patterns
(those most likely to contain
information of interest) are selected
at each iteration for manual
annotation by a human expert, who can
identify the specific animal making a
sound and perhaps link the sound to a
relevant behavior. See Kahl et al.
(2021); Kholghi et al. (2018); Oliver
et al. (2018); Shiu et al. (2020);
and Zeppelzauer et al.
(2015).
(29)
Kohlghi et al. (2018).
Machine learning can relieve humans
of the tedious work of
classification, and at least
partially automate the laborious
process of searching for patterns in
vocalizations. Machine learning
algorithms have enabled scientists to
decode links between vocalizations
and complex social behavior in
well-studied species (like birds),
but also in species that are more
challenging to study (like bats,
which vocalize above human hearing
range and can generate hundreds of
calls per minute in a crowded
colony). See Kershenbaum et al.
(2016).
(30)
Kimmerer (2015,
158).
(31)
De Chardin (1964), cited
in Fleissner and Hofkirchner (1998,
205); Kreisberg (1995); Steinhart
(2008); Yeo et al. (2012); Yin and
McCowan
(2004).
(32)
McLuhan
(1964).
(33)
Archibald (2008);
Clutesi (1967); Parent
(2018).
(34)
Zadeh and Akbari
(2016).
(35)
Langdon
(2018).
(36)
Gera
(2003).
(37)
Crane (2013). The
extensive debates about animal
language in philosophy and animal
studies are beyond the scope of this
book; for further reference, see
Derrida
(2008).
(38)
Dillon (1997); Hughes
(1983); Wertime
(1983).
(39)
Borrows (2022); Watts
(2013, 2020).
الفصل الأول: أصوات الحياة
(1)
New Bedford Whaling Museum
(2020a, 2020b).
(2)
Heller
(2020).
(3)
Shoemaker (2005, 2014,
2015).
(4)
Bockstoce
(1986).
(5)
Webb
(2011).
(6)
Demuth (2017, 2019a, 2019b,
2019c); Jones
(2015).
(7)
Bockstoce
(1986).
(8)
Aldrich (1889,
61).
(9)
Barr (2020); Barr et al.
(2017).
(10)
Melville
(2010).
(11)
Aksaarjuk
(1987).
(12)
Wright (1895,
41).
(13)
See
https://www.whalingmuseum.org/collections/highlights/photography/finding-aids/#aldrich-collection.
(14)
Aldrich (1889,
33).
(15)
Aldrich
(1889).
(16)
See
https://www.whalingmuseum.org/collections/highlights/photography/finding-aids/#aldrich-collection.
(17)
Aldrich (1889,
33).
(18)
Aldrich (1889,
33).
(19)
Aldrich (1889,
34).
(20)
Aldrich (1889,
116).
(21)
Aldrich (1889,
49).
(22)
I believe that this is the
first discussion of Aldrich’s story in
the contemporary period, at least with
respect to whale
bioacoustics.
(23)
Helmreich
(2016).
(24)
Eber
(1996).
(25)
Gogala (2014); Weber and
Thorson
(2019).
(26)
Godin (2017); Munk and
Day (2008); Munk et al. (1995);
Worzel (2000).
(27)
The SOFAR channel exists
because of the relationship between
sound speed, temperature, and
pressure: the lower the depth, the
colder the water and the slower sound
travels. But pressure also increases
with depth. As you descend into the
depths of the ocean, there is a point
where water temperature stabilizes,
beyond which only pressure increases;
at this depth, sound travels at its
slowest speed through water (the
“sound speed minimum”). The SOFAR
channel is found at this depth, which
may vary according to ocean
conditions. Somewhat analogous to how
a fiber optic cable guides light,
this deep horizontal channel not only
guides sound waves but also preserves
them over much longer distances than
at other depths; the sound waves are
bent (or refracted) back toward the
channel axis, where the lowest sound
speed occurs. Thus channeled,
low-frequency sound can travel for
long distances (higher-frequency
sound is absorbed more rapidly and is
only detectable at shorter
distances).
(28)
Evans (1994); Whitman
(2005). Some of the Navy recordings
are still classified. Later, another
passive monitoring system was
created: DIFAR, via which sonobuoys
were dropped directly from planes or
deployed from submarines. And in the
1970s, SURTASS, an active monitoring
system that sends out powerful pulses
and listens for echoes, was created.
DIFAR stands for directional LOFAR
(lower-frequency analysis and
recording). See D’Spain et al.
(1991).
(29)
Fish (1954); Fish et al.
(1952); Tavolga
(2012).
(30)
Tavolga
(2012).
(31)
New York Times
(1989).
(32)
Erskine (2013);
Nishimura
(1994).
(33)
Schevill
(1962).
(34)
Lubofsky
(2019).
(35)
Negri
(2004).
(36)
Ibid.
(37)
Ketten
(1997).
(38)
Bentley
(2005).
(39)
Tyack and Clark (2000).
See also Schevill and Lawrence
(1949).
(40)
Deecke et al. (2000,
2010); Filatova et al. (2012, 2013);
Foote et al. (2006); Janik (2014);
Kremers et al. (2012); Weiß et al.
(2011).
(41)
Brown (2019); Ivkovich
et al. (2010).
(42)
Holt et al.
(2019).
(43)
Schiffman
(2016).
(44)
Clark (1998); D’Spain et
al. (1991); Ketten (1997); Mourlam
and Orliac
(2017).
(45)
Whitman
(2005).
(46)
Watlington (1980);
Yandell
(2017).
(47)
Kwon
(2019).
(48)
Payne
(2021).
(49)
Kwon
(2019).
(50)
Watlington
(1982).
(51)
CBS Interactive Inc.
(2014).
(52)
Allchin (2015);
Rothenberg (2008). See also
Johnston-Barnes
(2013).
(53)
McQuay and Joyce
(2015).
(54)
Ibid.
(55)
Brody
(1993).
(56)
Payne and McVay (1971);
Negri (2004).
(57)
Payne and McVay (1971,
597); Van Cise et al.
(2018).
(58)
Schevill and Lawrence
(1949). See also Schevill (1962) and
Gertz (2016). To listen to the
recordings, refer to Watkins Marine
Mammal Sound Database
(2021).
(59)
Payne
(2000).
(60)
Cummings and Philippi
(1970); Guinee and Payne (1988);
Payne and Payne (1985); Payne and
McVay (1971); Payne and Webb
(1971).
(61)
Garland et al. (2011,
2017).
(62)
Darling et al. (2014);
Garland et al. (2011, 2013,
2017).
(63)
Ocean Alliance
(2019).
(64)
Payne and Webb
(1971).
(65)
Brody
(1993).
(66)
Kwon
(2019).
(67)
Schneider and Pearce
(2004).
(68)
World Wildlife Fund
(2013).
(69)
Payne and Webb
(1971).
(70)
Marler (1974,
35).
(71)
Kwon
(2019).
(72)
Kwon (2019); Mellinger
and Clark (2003); Stafford et al.
(1998). See also Brand
(2005).
(73)
Schevill and Watkins
(1972).
(74)
Clark and Clark
(1980).
(75)
Rolfe
(2012).
(76)
Nishimura
(1994).
الفصل الثاني: المحيط الشادي
(1)
Albert
(2001).
(2)
Royal Geographical Society
(2018).
(3)
Sakakibara
(2009).
(4)
Demuth
(2019c).
(5)
Sakakibara (2009,
292).
(6)
Brewster (2004); Sakakibara
(2008, 2009, 2010); Turner (1993);
Zumwalt (1988).
(7)
Cited in Sakakibara (2010,
1007).
(8)
Lantis
(1938).
(9)
Adams
(1979).
(10)
Blackman (1992); Bodenhorn
(1990); Brower (1942); Hess (2003); Kruse
et al. (1982); Sakakibara
(2017).
(11)
Brewster
(2004).
(12)
Brewster
(1997).
(13)
Baker and Vincent
(2019).
(14)
Blackman (1992); Brewster
(2004); Huntington et al.
(2001).
(15)
Albert (1992,
25).
(16)
Citta et al.
(2015).
(17)
Ashjian et al. (2010);
Grebmeier et al. (2006); Moore and Laidre
(2006); Moore et al. (2010); Watanabe et
al. (2012).
(18)
Wohlforth
(2005).
(19)
Albert
(2001).
(20)
Burns et al. (1993); George
et al. (2004); Noongwook et al. (2007);
Wohlforth (2005).
(21)
Wohlforth
(2005).
(22)
Kelman
(2010).
(23)
Huntington et al.
(2017).
(24)
Joyce and McQuay
(2015).
(25)
Joyce and McQuay (2015). See
also Hess (2003) and Wohlforth
(2005).
(26)
Clark and Johnson
(1984).
(27)
Clark et al.
(1986).
(28)
Ko et al.
(1986).
(29)
Clark and Ellison (1989);
Zeh et al. (1988).
(30)
The tracking algorithm,
which was gradually refined over several
years, became an integral component of
the evaluation framework for the combined
visual and acoustic data. See Clark
(1998); Clark et al. (1996); Clark and
Ellison (1989); Greene et al. (2004); and
Sonntag et al.
(1988).
(31)
Ko et al.
(1986).
(32)
Ellison et al. (1987);
George et al.
(1989).
(33)
Brower (1942); Tyrrell
(2007); George et al. (1989); Schell
(2015).
(34)
Tyrrell
(2007).
(35)
Erbe (2002); Greene (1987);
Koski and Johnson (1987);
LGL/Greeneridge
Sciences (1995); Matthews et al. (2020);
Patenaude et al. (2002); Richardson et
al. (1985, 1986, 1990); Richardson and
Greene (1993); Streever et al. (2008);
Wartzok et al.
(1989).
(36)
George et al. (1999);
Wohlforth (2005).
(37)
Erbs et al. (2021); Johnson
et al. (2011); Stafford et al. (2018);
Würsig and Clark
(1993).
(38)
George et al.
(2004).
(39)
Albert (2001); Clark et al.
(1996); Clark and Ellison (1989); George
et al. (1989,
2004).
(40)
See “Description of the USA
Aboriginal Subsistence Hunt: Alaska” at
https://iwc.int/alaska.
(41)
Suydam and George
(2021).
(42)
IWC (1982, 44). See also
Ikuta (2021) and “Description of the USA
Aboriginal Subsistence Hunt: Alaska” at
https://iwc.int/alaska.
(43)
Duarte et al.
(2021).
(44)
Clark et al.
(2009).
(45)
Blackwell et al. (2013);
Charif et al. (2013); Ljungblad et al.
(1988); Richardson et al.
(1999).
(46)
See also Weilgart
(2007).
(47)
Weilgart
(2007).
(48)
Eisner et al.
(2013).
(49)
Comiso et al. (2008);
Druckenmiller et al. (2018); Gearheard et
al. (2006, 2010, 2013); Stroeve et al.
(2008, 2011).
(50)
George et al. (2017);
Hartsig et al. (2012); Hauser et al.
(2018).
(51)
Berkman et al. (2016); Parks
et al. (2019).
(52)
Matthews et al. (2020);
Willoughby et al. (2020). See also NWMB
et al. (2000) and Ferguson et al.
(2012).
(53)
Herz
(2019).
(54)
Clark et al. (2015);
George et al. (2004); George and
Thewissen (2020); Stafford and Clark
(2021).
(55)
Nishimura
(1994).
(56)
Clark (1995); Stafford
et al. (2001); Watkins et al. (2000,
2004).
(57)
George et al. (2018).
See also Fox et al. (2001); Wiggins
(2003).
(58)
Shiu et al.
(2020).
(59)
Vickers et al.
(2021).
(60)
Johnson and Tyack
(2003).
(61)
Green et al. (1994);
Johnson and Tyack (2003); Miller et
al. (2000); Parks, Clark, and Tyack
(2007).
(62)
Thode et al.
(2012).
(63)
Parks et al.
(2007).
(64)
Parks et al.
(2007).
(65)
Syracuse University
(2019).
(66)
Johnson et al. (2015);
Stafford et al. (2008, 2012); Tervo
et al. (2011); Würsig and Clark
(1993).
(67)
Clark and Johnson
(1984); Cumming and Holliday (1987);
Delarue, Laurinolli, et al. (2009);
Delarue, Todd, et al. (2009);
Ljungblad et al. (1980, 1982);
Stafford and Clark (2021); Tervo et
al. (2011); Würsig and Clark
(1993).
(68)
Johnson et al. (2015);
on the question of songbird diversity
predicting population health, see
Laiolo et al.
(2008).
(69)
NOAA Fisheries (2020a,
2020b).
(70)
Gabrys (2016b, 90). See
also Gabrys
(2016a).
(71)
Brewster (2004);
Huntington et al. (2021). See also
“Description of the USA Aboriginal
Subsistence Hunt: Alaska” at
https://iwc.int/alaska.
(72)
Brewster (2004);
Wohlforth
(2005).
(73)
Bodenhorn
(1990).
(74)
Brewster (2004,
156).
(75)
Gillespie et al. (2020);
Hastie et al.
(2019).
الفصل الثالث: الرعد الصامت
(1)
Parker and Graham
(1989).
(2)
Estimates vary, but indicate
that the African elephant population of
over 1.3 million in 1979 was reduced to
less than half that number by 1989:
Douglas-Hamilton (1987, 2009); Poole and
Thomsen (1989); Roth and Douglas-Hamilton
(1991).
(3)
King
(2019).
(4)
Douglas-Hamilton and Burrill
(1991).
(5)
Poole and Thomsen
(1989).
(6)
Martin (1978). See also
Larom et al.
(1997).
(7)
Krishnan
(1972).
(8)
Payne (1998,
20).
(9)
Payne (1998,
21).
(10)
Payne (1998,
21).
(11)
Payne et al. (1986). See
also Webster
(1986).
(12)
See Webster
(1986).
(13)
Pye and Langbauer
(1998).
(14)
Moss et al.
(2011).
(15)
Joyce Poole now runs the NGO
Elephant Voices
(https://elephantvoices.org/).
(16)
See, for example, McComb et
al. (2001).
(17)
See, for example, Lee and
Moss (1986).
(18)
Langbauer et al. (1991);
Poole et al.
(1988).
(19)
Moss
(1983).
(20)
Langbauer et al.
(1991).
(21)
McComb et al. (2000, 2003);
Poole et al.
(2005).
(22)
Byrne et al. (2008); Poole
and Moss (2008).
(23)
Roca et al.
(2001).
(24)
Hedwig et al.
(2018).
(25)
Payne
(2004).
(26)
Fox (2004); Payne (2004);
Wrege et al.
(2012).
(27)
Cornell Lab
(2021).
(28)
Wrege et al.
(2017).
(29)
Wrege et al.
(2017).
(30)
Thompson et al. (2010);
Turkalo et al. (2017, 2018). See also
Maisels et al.
(2013).
(31)
Maisels et al.
(2013).
(32)
Chase et al.
(2016).
(33)
Gobush et al.
(2021).
(34)
Payne et al.
(2003).
(35)
Simpson et al.
(2015).
(36)
Bjorck et al.
(2019).
(37)
Bjorck et al. (2019); Keen
et al. (2017). See also Temple-Raston
(2019).
(38)
Sethi et al.
(2020).
(39)
Nath et al.
(2015).
(40)
Davies et al. (2011);
Fernando et al. (2005); Hedges and
Gunaryadi (2010); Guynup et al.
(2020); Nyhus and Sumianto
(2000).
(41)
Vollrath and
Douglas-Hamilton
(2002).
(42)
Barua et al. (2013);
Jadhav and Barua (2012); Nath et al.
(2009).
(43)
Calabrese et al. (2017);
Thouless et al.
(2016).
(44)
Shaffer et al.
(2019).
(45)
Hoare (2015); Liu et al.
(2017).
(46)
Thuppil and Coss (2016);
Wijayagunawardane et al.
(2016).
(47)
Vollrath and
Douglas-Hamilton
(2002).
(48)
Ellis and Ellis (2009);
França et al. (1994); Pereira et al.
(2005).
(49)
Ibid.
(50)
King
(2010).
(51)
King et al.
(2007).
(52)
King et al.
(2009).
(53)
King et al.
(2011).
(54)
King et al.
(2017).
(55)
King
(2019).
(56)
King et al. (2017); King
et al. (2011).
(57)
Branco et al. (2020);
Dror et al. (2020); King et al.
(2018); Ngama et al. (2016); Van de
Water et al. (2020); Virtanen et al.
(2020).
(58)
See
https://elephantsandbees.com/.
(59)
Herbst et al.
(2012).
(60)
King (2019); McComb et
al. (2003).
(61)
Arnason et al.
(2002).
(62)
Leighty et al. (2008);
Soltis (2010); Soltis et al.
(2005).
(63)
King (2019); King et al.
(2010).
(64)
Cheney and Seyfarth
(1981); Seyfarth et al. (1980).
Different types of alarm calls have
been reported for other species,
including many species of birds and
vervet monkeys, which make
acoustically different alarm calls
for different threats (leopards,
eagles, or
snakes).
(65)
Soltis et al.
(2014).
(66)
Dutour et al.
(2021).
(67)
McComb et al.
(2014).
(68)
McComb et al. (2000,
2003); O’Connell-Rodwell et al.
(2007).
(69)
de Silva and Wittemyer
(2012); de Silva et al. (2011);
McComb et al. (2001); Stoeger and
Baotic (2016).
(70)
Poole et al.
(2005).
(71)
Poole et al.
(2005).
(72)
Brainard and Fitch
(2014).
(73)
Kamminga et al. (2018);
Zeppelzauer et al.
(2015).
(74)
Premarathna et al.
(2020).
(75)
Chalmers et al. (2019);
Dhanaraj et al. (2017); Mangai et al.
(2018); Ramesh et al. (2017);
Premarathna et al.
(2020).
(76)
Firdhous (2020); Hahn et
al. (2017); Shaffer et al. (2019);
Wright et al. (2018); Zeppelzauer and
Stoeger (2015); Zeppelzauer et al.
(2013).
(77)
Fernando et al. (2005);
Lorimer
(2010).
(79)
Corbley (2017). See also
https://helloinelephant.com/.
(80)
French et al. (2020);
Mumby and Plotnik (2018); Stoeger
(2021).
الفصل الرابع: صوت السلحفاة المائية
(1)
Giles, correspondence with
author, April
2021.
(2)
While scientists now accept
that turtles vocalize, how they do so is
still a mystery. Ironically, given how
many turtles were chopped up for food
over the past few centuries, we still do
not fully understand their anatomy.
Previously, biologists had assumed that
turtles could not make sounds underwater,
because they had assumed an anatomical
basis of sound production that requires
air to circulate. But turtles do not rely
on rib-based (costal) pumping for air
flow and cycling. How, then, could they
possibly make noise? Perhaps through a
process known as gular pumping, which
involves expanding and contracting the
throat to produce air, in the same way
that humans use their diaphragms. At the
present time, however, this is merely
speculation. Although we have a better
understanding of turtles’ specialized
ears for hearing underwater, scientists
remain stumped about precisely how they
make noise when submerged underwater for
long periods. See Russell and Bauer
(2020).
(3)
Giles, correspondence with
author, April
2021.
(4)
Vergne et al. (2009). See
also Britton (2001) and Garrick and Lang
(1977).
(5)
Pope (1955). See the useful
review in Liu et al. (2013). Although a
few scientists described turtle
vocalizations, they were dismissed or
forgotten. See also Campbell and Evans
(1972) and Walter
(1950).
(6)
Russell and Bauer (2020);
Willis and Carr
(2017).
(7)
Giles (2005); Giles et al.
(2009).
(8)
These types of turtles are
found only in Papua New Guinea,
Australia, and South America: Giles,
correspondence with author, April
2021.
(9)
Giles, correspondence with
author, April
2021.
(10)
Ibid.
(11)
Giles et al.
(2009).
(12)
Capshaw et al. (2021). See
also Pika et al.
(2018).
(13)
This discussion of Amazon
river turtles draws on the following
references: Alves (2007a, 2007b); Alves
and Santana (2008); Bates (1864);
Brunelli (2011); Cleary (2001); Coutinho
(1868); dos Santos et al. (2020);
Forero-Medina et al. (2019); Gilmore
(1986); Johns (1987); Klemens and
Thorbjarnarson (1995); Mittermeier
(1975); Papavero et al. (2010); Pezzuti
et al. (2010); Smith (1974, 1979);
Stanford et al. (2020); and Vogt
(2008).
(14)
Coutinho (1868), cited in
Smith (1974).
(15)
Bates
(1864).
(16)
Darwin (1999, 326–27), cited
in Egerton (2012).
(17)
Bates (1864, 322),
cited in Egerton
(2012).
(18)
Vogt
(2008).
(19)
dos Santos et al.
(2020).
(20)
Ferreira (1972a, 1972b),
cited in dos Santos et al.
(2020).
(21)
Landi (2002), cited in dos
Santos et al.
(2020).
(22)
Ferreira (1972a, 1972b),
cited in dos Santos et al.
(2020).
(23)
Ferreira (1972a, 1972b),
cited in Smith
(1974).
(24)
Bates (1864); Smith (1974);
Vogt (2008).
(25)
Pezzuti et al. (2010);
Salera et al.
(2006).
(26)
Smith
(1974).
(27)
Bates (1864); Coutinho
(1868).
(28)
Smith (1979) estimates two
hundred million eggs were harvested; dos
Santos et al. (2020) estimates much
higher. Bates estimated that townspeople
of one community, Ega, collected
forty-eight million eggs per year. Some
villages reportedly produced as many as
one hundred thousand pots of turtle oil
per year.
(29)
See, for example, Allan
(1991); Benton-Banai (1988); Bevan
(1988); Fischer (1966); Johnston
(1990); McGregor (2009); Mohawk
(1994); Peacock and Wisuri (2009);
and Umeasiegbu
(1982).
(30)
Smith
(1974).
(31)
dos Santos
(2020).
(32)
Smith
(1974).
(33)
Ferrara et al. (2013,
2014a, 2014b,
2017).
(34)
Ferrara et al.
(2014c,
266).
(35)
Ferrara, interview with
author, November
2020.
(36)
Ferrara et al. (2019).
For another study on turtle embryo
sounds, see Monteiro et al.
(2019).
(37)
Warkentin
(2011).
(38)
Not all turtle species
coordinate their hatching, and even
when they do, they do not always
coordinate primarily through acoustic
communication (vibrations might
stimulate cohatching instead): Doody
et al. (2012); Field (2020); McKenna
et al. (2019); Nishizawa et al.
(2021); Riley et al.
(2020).
(39)
Monteiro et al. (2019);
Nuwer (2014); Rusli et al.
(2016).
(40)
Crockford et al. (2017);
Ferrara et al. (2013, 2014a,
2014b).
(41)
Ferrara et al.
(2013).
(42)
Holtz et al. (2021);
Nelms et al. (2016); Piniak (2012);
Piniak et al. (2012,
2016).
(43)
Giles (2005); Giles et
al. (2009).
(44)
Papale et al.
(2020).
(45)
Noda et al. (2017,
2018).
(46)
Abrahams et al. (2021);
Greenhalgh et al. (2020,
2021).
(47)
Abrahams et al.
(2021).
(48)
Rountree and Juanes
(2018).
(49)
Buscaino et al.
(2021).
(50)
Chang et al.
(2021).
(51)
Machine learning
algorithms can reveal forest
degradation from fire and logging;
the physical devastation can be
inferred from the impoverished
soundscapes that result. The
architecture of digital acoustics
that is now being built will enable
the Amazon rainforest to be
characterized and modeled as a
landscape of digital acoustic
information: the Amazon, in other
words, may one day have an acoustical
digital twin: Colonna et al. (2020);
Do Nascimento et al. (2020);
Rappaport et al. (2021); Rappaport
and Morton
(2017).
(52)
Seeger
(2015).
(53)
Brabec de Mori (2015);
Brabec de Mori and Seeger (2013);
Lima (1996, 2005); Pucci (2019);
Thalji and Yakushko (2018); Viveiros
de Castro (1996,
2012).
(54)
de Menezes Bastos (1999,
87).
(55)
de Menezes Bastos (2013,
287-88).
(56)
Ferreira (1972a, 27),
cited in Smith
(1974).
(57)
Cantarelli et al.
(2014); Páez et al. (2015);
Pantoja-Lima et al. (2014); Rhodin et
al. (2017).
(58)
Pantoja-Lima et al.
(2014).
(59)
Castello et al.
(2013).
الفصل الخامس: تهويدة الشِّعاب المرجانية
(1)
Doney et al. (2009); Gattuso
and Hansson (2011); Hoegh-Guldberg et al.
(2007); Raven et al. (2005); Watson et
al. (2017).
(2)
Doney et al. (2009); Gattuso
and Hansson (2011); Hoegh-Guldberg et al.
(2007); Raven et al. (2005); Watson et
al. (2017).
(3)
Doney et al. (2009); Gattuso
and Hansson (2011); Guo et al. (2020);
Hoegh-Guldberg et al. (2007, 2017);
Mongin et al. (2016); Raven et al.
(2005); Wei et al.
(2009).
(4)
Hoegh-Guldberg et al.
(2017).
(5)
Plaisance et al.
(2011).
(6)
Guo et al. (2020); Hughes et
al. (2018); Hoegh-Guldberg et al. (2007);
Mongin et al. (2016); Wei et al.
(2009).
(7)
Kwaymullina (2018,
198-99).
(8)
Nunn and Reid (2016).
See also Reid and Nunn
(2015).
(9)
Fitzpatrick et al.
(2018); Lambrides et al. (2020);
Waterson et al.
(2013).
(10)
Cheng et al. (2020);
Cressey (2016); Hughes et al.
(2018).
(11)
At the base of each
coral polyp is a protective limestone
skeleton called a calicle. Reefs
emerge when a polyp attaches itself
to a rock or the seafloor and then
buds (self-divides) into thousands of
clones with interconnected calicles.
Coral colonies aggregate together to
build reefs. Using a genetic approach
to estimate the ages of corals,
scientists have found some corals are
up to five thousand years old. See
NOAA (2021a).
(12)
Nielsen et al. (2018);
Oakley and Davy
(2018).
(13)
Preston
(2021).
(14)
Burnett (2012); Gillaspy
et al. (2014); Ruggieri (2012);
St.
Augustine Record
(2014). See also Taylor
(n.d.).
(15)
Tavolga
(2002).
(16)
Coates (2005); Hawkins
(1981). See also Hase
(1923).
(17)
Tavolga
(2012).
(18)
Tavolga
(1981).
(19)
Tavolga
(2012).
(20)
Tavolga
(2012).
(21)
Aguzzi et al. (2019);
Carriço et al. (2020); Dimoff et al.
(2021); Lindseth and Lobel (2018);
Lin et al. (2021); Lyon et al.
(2019); Mooney et al. (2020); Popper
et al. (2003); Roca and Van Opzeeland
(2020); Tyack
(1997).
(22)
See, for example,
McCauley and Cato
(2000).
(23)
Barlow et al.
(2019).
(24)
Erisman and Rowell
(2017).
(25)
Glowacki (2015);
Talandier et al. (2002,
2006).
(26)
Rice et al. (2017);
Ruppé et al.
(2015).
(28)
Radford et al. (2011);
Simpson et al. (2004,
2005).
(29)
Elise et al.
(2019).
(30)
Lin et al. (2019);
Mooney et al.
(2020).
(31)
Bohnenstiehl et al.
(2018).
(32)
Bohnenstiehl et al.
(2018); Linke et al.
(2018).
(33)
Lin et al.
(2021).
(34)
Gordon et al.
(2018).
(35)
After the catastrophic
mass bleaching in 2016, a second,
similarly intense mass bleaching
event occurred in 2017, giving the
coral little chance to recover:
Gordon et al.
(2018).
(36)
Simpson et al. (2004);
Simpson et al.
(2005).
(37)
Leis (2006); Leis et al.
(2011); Jones et al. (2009); Swearer
et al. (1999).
(38)
Jones et al.
(1999).
(39)
Neme
(2010).
(40)
Lillis et al. (2013,
2016); Raick et al. (2021). See also
Neme (2010).
(41)
Staaterman et al.
(2014).
(42)
Simpson et al.
(2004).
(43)
Simpson et al. (2004,
2005).
(44)
Radford et al.
(2011).
(45)
Papale et al. (2020);
Stanley et al.
(2010).
(46)
Simpson et al.
(2016).
(47)
Simpson et al. (2011).
See also Lindseth and Lobel
(2018).
(48)
Leis et al. (2011,
826).
(49)
Eldridge
(2021).
(50)
Haggan et al.
(2007).
(51)
Schwartz
(2019).
(52)
Haggan et al. (2007);
Hair et al. (2002); Johannes (1981);
Johannes and Ogburn (1999); Leis et
al. (1996); Leis and Carson-Ewart
(2000); Poepoe et al. (2007);
Stobutzki and Bellwood
(1998).
(53)
NOAA
(2021b).
(54)
Neme
(2010).
(55)
Vermeij et al.
(2010).
(56)
Vermeij et al. (2010).
See also Simpson
(2013).
(57)
Budelmann
(1989).
(58)
Neme (2010); Simpson,
interview with author, March
2021.
(59)
See also Madl and
Witzany
(2014).
(60)
Using a well-established
genetic analysis method (PCR), the
researchers analyzed extracts of
Cyphastrea coral DNA
for FOLH1 and TRPV genes, which have
previously been observed in sea
anemones and freshwater polyps
(organisms that are fairly similar to
coral); TRPV is associated with
hearing in other species, such as
Drosophila: Ibanez
and Hawker (2021); See also Peng et
al. (2015).
(61)
Gordon et al.
(2018).
(62)
Simpson et al. (2004);
Gordon et al. (2018); Radford et al.
(2011).
(63)
Karageorghis and Priest
(2012); Koelsch (2009); Terry et al.
(2020).
(64)
Gordon et al. (2019);
Parmentier et al. (2015); Tolimieri
et al. (2004).
(65)
Lamont et al.
(2021).
(66)
Williams et al.
(2021).
(67)
Suca et al.
(2020).
(68)
Ferrier-Pagès (2021);
Simpson et al. (2011,
2016).
(69)
Gordon (2020); Mars et
al. (2020). See also Ladd et al.
(2019).
(70)
Lecchini et al.
(2018).
(71)
Great Barrier Reef
Foundation
(2020).
(72)
See
https://www.50reefs.org/.
(73)
Mission Blue
(2020).
(74)
Gordon et al.
(2018).
(75)
Mars (n.d.). See also
Mars Coral Reef Restoration
(2021).
(76)
Gordon et al.
(2018).
(77)
Mars
(n.d.).
(78)
Simpson et al. (2004,
2005).
(79)
Jones et al. (1999);
Swearer et al.
(1999).
الفصل السادس: النغمات المتعددة للنباتات
(1)
Microsoft
(2020c).
(2)
Microsoft tweet, February
13, 2020: “What if we could talk to
plants? That’s exactly the question
Project Florence explores. Dig in:
msft.it/6009TwcKT #MSInnovation.”
https://twitter.com/microsoft/status/1228114232547381248.
(3)
Microsoft
(2020a).
(4)
Microsoft
(2020b).
(5)
Iribarren
(2019).
(6)
Sarchet
(2016).
(7)
O’Reilly (2008); Hammill and
Hendricks (2013).
(8)
Gagliano et al. (2017); Kivy
(1959); Ravignani
(2018).
(9)
Darwin (1917,
107).
(10)
Arner (2017); Madshobye
(n.d.); McIntyre
(2018).
(11)
Burdon-Sanderson
(1873).
(12)
Bose
(1926).
(13)
Bouwmeester et al.
(2019); Selosse et al. (2006); Simard
et al. (1997); Simard and Durall
(2004); Twieg, Durall, and Simard et
al. (2007).
(14)
See, for example,
Rodrigo-Moreno et al.
(2017).
(15)
Choi et al. (2017);
Fernandez-Jaramillo et al. (2018);
Hassanien et al. (2014); Jung et al.
(2018, 2020); Khait, Obolski, et al.
(2019); Kim et al. (2021);
López-Ribera and Vicient (2017a,
2017b); Mishra and Bae (2019);
Prévost et al.
(2020).
(16)
Ghosh et al. (2019);
Joshi et al. (2019); Sharifi and Ryu
(2021).
(17)
See, for example,
Kawakami et al.
(2019).
(18)
Mankin et al.
(2018).
(19)
See Chamovitz (2020);
Gagliano (2018); Hall (2011);
Holdrege (2013); Kohn (2013); Mancuso
and Viola (2015); Marder (2013); and
Simard (2021).
(20)
Myers (2015); Pollan
(2013).
(21)
Baluška et al. (2010);
Myers (2015); Sung and Amasino
(2004).
(22)
Myers
(2015).
(23)
On the related debate
about plant consciousness, which is
beyond the scope of this book, see
Allen (2017); Allen and Bekoff
(1999); Baluška and Levin (2016);
Baluška and Mancuso (2018, 2020,
2021); Brenner et al. (2006); Calvo
and Trewavas (2020a, 2020b); Calvo et
al. (2020); Levin et al. (2021);
Linson and Calvo (2020); Lyon et al.
(2021); Maher (2017, 2020); Mallatt
et al. (2021); Robinson et al.
(2020); and Taiz et al. (2019,
2020).
(24)
Gagliano (2013a, 2013b);
Kikuta et al. (1997); Kikuta and
Richter (2003); Laschimke et al.
(2006); Perks et al. (2004); Rosner
et al. (2006); Zweifel and Zeugin
(2008).
(25)
Kimmerer (2013,
128).
(26)
Gagliano, Mancuso, et
al. (2012); Gagliano, Renton, et al.
(2012).
(27)
Sano et al. (2013,
2015).
(28)
Frongia et al. (2020);
Gagliano (2013a, 2013b); Gagliano,
Mancuso, et al. (2012); Gagliano,
Renton, et al. (2012); Khait,
Lewin-Epstein, et al. (2019); Khait,
Obolski, et al. (2019); Khait,
Sharon, et al. (2019); Szigeti and
Parádi (2020).
(29)
Pace
(1996).
(30)
Gagliano, Mancuso, et
al. (2012); Gagliano, interview with
author, March
2021.
(31)
Gagliano, Mancuso, et
al. (2012).
(32)
Gagliano, interview with
author, March
2021.
(33)
Pollan
(2013).
(34)
See Brenner et al.
(2006) and the subsequent exchange:
Alpi et al. (2007) and Brenner et al.
(2007).
(35)
This also raises the
question, which is beyond the scope
of this book, of whether plants are
capable of cognition. Building on
recent research that demonstrates
plants’ capacities for sophisticated
behaviors once thought to be unique
to the animal kingdom—such as
nutrient foraging and complex
decision making—a growing number of
researchers argue that there is
sufficient evidence to consider
plants to be cognitive organisms:
Segundo-Ortin and Calvo
(2021).
(36)
Gagliano et al.
(2017).
(37)
Gagliano et al. (2017).
Although subsequent research has
independently confirmed her claim
that plants exhibit learning and
memory, Gagliano’s research remains
controversial among some scientists,
particularly her account of her
experimental design process, in which
the plants themselves instructed her
on the designs via dreams or while
she was in a shamanistic trance:
Gagliano (2018). For commentaries and
critiques, see Cocroft and Appel
(2013); Robinson et al. (2020); and
Taiz et al. (2019). For a rebuttal,
see Baluška and Mancuso (2020) and
Maher (2017, 2020). See also Mancuso
and Viola
(2015).
(38)
Appel and Cocroft
(2014).
(39)
Michael et al.
(2019).
(40)
Kollasch et al.
(2020).
(41)
Quoted in Mishra et al.
(2016, 4493).
(42)
Body et al. (2019);
Ghosh et al.
(2016).
(43)
Gagliano, interview with
author, March
2021.
(44)
Kollist et al.
(2019).
(45)
Paik et al. (2018);
Sharifi and Ryu
(2021).
(46)
Simpson
(2013).
(47)
Rogers et al.
(1988).
(48)
Gagliano, Mancuso, et
al. (2012); Khait, Obolski, et al.
(2019); Simpson
(2013).
(49)
Monshausen and Gilroy
(2009).
(50)
Liu et al. (2017); Yin
et al. (2021).
(51)
Krause (2013). See also
Farina et al.
(2011).
(52)
Eldridge and Kiefer
(2018); Farina et al. (2011);
Mossbridge and Thomas (1999);
Villanueva-Rivera
(2014).
(53)
Krause (1987, 1993,
2013).
(54)
Haskell (2013,
5).
(55)
On the related “acoustic
habitat” hypothesis, see Mullet et
al. (2017).
(56)
Capranica and Moffat
(1983).
(57)
Barber et al. (2021);
Corcoran et al. (2009); Neil et al.
(2020).
(58)
Yovel et al. (2008,
2009).
(59)
Kaufman
(2011).
(60)
von Helversen and von
Helversen
(1999).
(61)
De Luca and
Vallejo-Marin (2013); Vallejo-Marin
(2019).
(62)
Note that bees can also
detect and learn floral electrical
fields. See Clarke et al.
(2013).
(63)
Veits et al.
(2019).
(64)
For criticisms of this
research, see Pyke et al. (2020) and
Raguso et al. (2020). For a response,
see Goldshtein et al.
(2020).
(65)
Kaufman (2011). See also
Simon et al. (2011). The authors have
gone on to develop better sonar for
UAVs using the plant-based method:
Simon et al.
(2020).
(66)
Gagliano et al. (2014);
Schaefer and Ruxton
(2011).
(67)
Segundo-Ortin and Calvo
(2021).
(68)
Bailey et al.
(2013).
(69)
Schöner et al.
(2016).
(70)
Lacoste, Ruiz and Or
(2018); Maeder et al. (2019);
Quintanilla-Tornel (2017); Rillig,
Bonneval and Lehmann
(2019).
(71)
Görres and Chesmore
(2019).
(72)
Mason and Narins
(2002).
(73)
Briones (2018); Hill and
Wessel (2016).
(74)
Mishra et al. (2016);
ten Cate
(2013).
(75)
Segundo-Ortin and Calvo
(2021).
(76)
Safina
(2015).
(77)
Supper (2014); Turino
(2008).
(78)
Callicott (2013); Daly
and Shepard (2019); Kirksey (2014);
Russell
(2018).
(79)
Kimmerer (2002,
436).
(80)
Gagliano (2017,
2018).
الفصل السابع: مداعبات الخفافيش
(1)
Hahn
(1908).
(2)
Dijkgraaf
(1960).
(3)
Griffin
(1958).
(4)
Saunders and Hunt
(1959).
(5)
Pierce’s device could detect
ultrasound in the range from 20 kHz to
approximately 100
kHz.
(6)
Temperature also influences
acoustic communication in fishes: Ladich
(2018).
(7)
Pierce
(1943).
(8)
Pierce (1948,
7).
(9)
Griffin, quoted in Squire
(1998, 74).
(10)
Griffin (1980); Pierce and
Griffin (1938).
(11)
Griffin
(1980).
(12)
Griffin (1946); Griffin and
Galambos (1941).
(13)
Griffin and Galambos (1941,
498).
(14)
Yoon
(2003).
(15)
Griffin
(1989).
(16)
Grinnell and Griffin (1958);
Griffin et al.
(1960).
(17)
Griffin (1989,
138).
(18)
Ibid.
(19)
Knörnschild, interview
with author, June
2021.
(20)
Balcombe (1990); Jones
and Ransome (1993); Wilkinson
(2003).
(21)
Fernandez and
Knörnschild
(2020).
(22)
Knörnschild et al.
(2012).
(23)
Knörnschild
(2014).
(24)
Knörnschild and
Helverson
(2006).
(25)
Hörmann et al.
(2020).
(26)
Knörnschild et al.
(2017).
(27)
There is also evidence
that bats can learn new dialects as
adults. In studies of other species,
scientists have demonstrated that
bats that are moved from one colony
to another can adjust the frequency
of their calls to match those of
their new community: Hiryu et al.
(2006).
(28)
Smotherman et al.
(2016).
(29)
Morell
(2014).
(30)
Smotherman et al.
(2016).
(31)
Goodwin and Greenhall
(1961).
(32)
Barlow and Jones
(1997).
(33)
Vernes and Wilkinsin
(2020).
(34)
Knörnschild, interview
with author, June
2021.
(35)
Ibid.
(36)
Ibid.
(37)
Byrne and Whiten (1994);
Whiten and Byrne
(1997).
(38)
Chaverri et al. (2018);
Kerth (2008); Wilkinson et al.
(2019).
(39)
Knörnschild
(2017).
(40)
Knörnschild, interview
with author, June
2021.
(41)
Skibba
(2016).
(42)
Harten et al. (2019);
Moreno et al. (2021); Prat and Yovel
(2020).
(43)
Carter and Wilkinson
(2013, 2015).
(44)
Carter and Wilkinson
(2016).
(45)
Ripperger et al. (2020).
See also Stockmaier et al. (2020a,
2020b) and Waldstein
(2020).
(46)
Dressler et al.
(2016).
(47)
Dressler et al. (2016);
Ripperger et al.
(2016).
(48)
Visalli, interview with
author, November
2021.
(49)
Why would bats be useful
to study if scientists are interested
in insights into the origins of human
language? Conventionally, the animal
model of choice for the study of
vocal learning has been songbirds.
Although birds and humans are
separated by around three hundred
million years of evolution, we share
some genetic and behavioral
similarities. For example, the first
gene discovered to cause a language
disorder in humans, FOXP2, is
expressed in similar patterns in
songbird and human brains. In humans,
disruptions to FOXP2 can result in
impaired grammar and language
expression; in songbirds, disruptions
to the same gene can have pronounced
effects on vocal learning, causing
songbirds to drop syllables and
perform abnormally variable,
inaccurate songs. More than fifty
genes have been identified with
potential links to vocal learning;
these genes have similar expressions
in songbird and human brains
(patterns not found in nonvocal
learning species, such as doves or
macaques). These similarities allow
researchers to study the same gene in
both humans and songbirds, and
perform experiments on birds that
would not be ethical in humans, such
as knocking out or artificially
boosting genes. But bird brain
architecture is vastly different from
ours, lacking the layered mammalian
cerebral cortex and cortical-basal
ganglia circuits, both of which are
associated with higher functions,
such as cognition and learning. This
led to an earlier belief—since
dispelled—that the avian brain was
not wired to learn; scientists no
longer believe that birds act
automatically, purely on instinct,
like winged automata. Rather,
songbirds learn their songs much as
humans learn to sing—through
imitation and repeated practice
(Beecher et al. 2017). Only in recent
decades have researchers demonstrated
that songbirds have complex
structures in their brains; but these
are organized in clumps (called
nuclei) rather than layers, as in
humans. Avian brain cells may not
have the same macrostructure as human
brains, but they function at a
similar level of complexity.
Nonetheless, the differences are so
significant that studies of birds do
not necessarily shed light on
analogous processes in humans:
(Dugas-Ford (2012); Calabrese and
Woolley (2015); Haesler et al.
(2007); Heston and White (2015); Lai
et al. (2001); Pfenning et al.
(2014); Reiner et al.
(2004)).
(50)
Rodenas-Cuadrado et al.
(2018).
(51)
Vernes and Wilkinson
(2020).
(52)
Ripperger et al. (2019);
Wilkinson and Boughman (1998). See
http://mirjam-knoernschild.org/vocal-repertoires/saccopteryx-bilineata/
for recordings and a discussion of
these
categories.
(53)
Prat et al. (2016);
Skibba (2016).
(54)
Hörmann et al. (2020);
Knörnschild et al.
(2020).
(55)
Shen
(2017).
(56)
At the time of writing,
evidence of vocal learning has been
found in eight of the seventeen
families of bats. Vocal learning has
also been documented in other
species, including whales, birds, and
elephants: Lattenkamp et al. (2018);
Petkov (2012); Vernes and Wilkinson
(2020); Vernes
(2017).
(57)
Knörnschild
(2014).
(58)
Knörnschild and
Fernandez
(2020).
(59)
The method is known as
ELVIS (echo location visualization
and interface system): Amundin et al.
(2008); Starkhammar et al.
(2007).
(60)
Knörnschild, interview
with author, June
2021.
(61)
Rose et al.
(2020).
(62)
Zwain and Bahuaddin
(2015).
(63)
Low et al.
(2021).
(64)
Brady and Coltman
(2016).
(65)
Alaica
(2020).
(66)
Fernández-Llamazares
(2021).
(67)
Tønnessen et al. (2016).
Related fields of study in the
natural sciences (biosemiotics,
zoosemiotics) and social sciences
(multispecies ethnography, posthuman
animal studies) use the term
umwelt in different
ways, as there is no one universally
accepted definition of the term—which
its inventor, Jakob von Uexküll,
declined to precisely
define.
(68)
Sapolsky
(2011).
(69)
Trestman and Allen
(2016).
(70)
Griffin
(1976).
(71)
Griffin and Speck (2004,
6).
(72)
See, for example,
Dennett (1995, 2001) and Searle and
Willis (2002).
(73)
Yoon
(2003).
(74)
Terrace and Metcalfe
(2005).
(75)
Nagel
(1974).
(76)
Nagel (1974,
436).
(77)
Wittgenstein
(1953).
(78)
Nagel (2012,
7).
(79)
Knörnschild, interview
with author, June
2021.
الفصل الثامن: كيف نتكلم لغة النحل؟
(1)
Kelly (1994,
7-8).
(2)
Hrncir et al.
(2011).
(3)
Nobel Prize (1973a,
1973b).
(4)
Munz
(2016).
(5)
Munz (2016,
19).
(6)
Frisch
(1914).
(7)
Frisch (1967). See also
Camazine et al. (2003); Gould (1974);
Gould et al.
(1970).
(8)
Dyer and Seeley (1991);
Gould (1982).
(9)
De Marco and Menzel
(2008); Menzel et al.
(2006).
(10)
Munz (2016,
1).
(11)
Gould
(1976).
(12)
Munz
(2005).
(13)
Gould (1974, 1975,
1976); Gould et al.
(1970).
(14)
Munz (2016); Nobel Prize
(1973a,
1973b).
(15)
Munz
(2016).
(16)
Frisch (1950). See also
Schürch et al.
(2016).
(17)
For a review of this
topic, see Hunt and Richard
(2013).
(18)
Witzany
(2014).
(19)
Dreller and Kirchner
(1993); Kirchner (1993); Lindauer
(1977).
(20)
Cecchi et al. (2018);
Collison (2016); Nolasco and Benetos
(2018); Nolasco et al.
(2019).
(21)
Ramsey et al. (2017);
Tan et al.
(2016).
(22)
Boucher and Schneider
(2009); Dong et al. (2019); Nieh
(1998, 2010); Richardson (2017);
Terenzi et al.
(2020).
(23)
Witzany
(2014).
(24)
Cheeseman et al. (2014);
Wu et al.
(2013).
(25)
Dyer et al. (2005); Wu
et al. (2013).
(26)
Abramson et al. (2016);
Alem et al.
(2016).
(27)
Moritz and Crewe
(2018).
(28)
Bateson et al. (2011);
Perry et al.
(2016).
(29)
Srinivasan (2010,
R368).
(30)
Passino and Seeley
(2006); Passino et al. (2008);
Schultz et al. (2008); Seeley et al.
(2006, 2012). See also Niven
(2012).
(31)
Viveiros de Castro
(2012); Seeley (2010); Seeley et al.
(2012).
(32)
McNeil (2010); Seeley
(2009, 2010); Seeley et al.
(2012).
(33)
Nakrani and Tovey (2003,
2004); Seeley
(2021).
(34)
Boenisch et al.
(2018).
(35)
Boenisch et al.
(2018).
(36)
Nouvian et al.
(2016).
(37)
Liang et al.
(2019).
(38)
Haldane and Spurway
(1954).
(39)
Michelsen et al.
(1993).
(40)
Singla
(2020).
(41)
Koenig et al.
(2020).
(42)
Dong et al.
(2019).
(43)
Cejrowski et al. (2018);
Murphy et al.
(2015).
(44)
Kulyukin et al. (2018);
Ramsey et al. (2020); Ramsey and
Newton (2018); Zgank
(2019).
(45)
For more information
about HIVEOPOLIS, see
https://www.hiveopolis.eu.
(46)
Nunn and Reid (2016);
Whitridge
(2015).
(47)
Hollmann (2004); Rusch
(2018a, 2018b); Swan
(2017).
(48)
Sugawara
(1990).
(49)
Gruber (2018); Isack and
Reyer (1989); Marlowe et al. (2014);
Spottiswoode et al.
(2011).
(50)
Crane and Graham
(1985).
(51)
Isack and Reyer
(1989).
(52)
Spottiswoode et al.
(2016).
(53)
Spottiswoode (2017);
Spottiswoode et al. (2016). See also
FitzPatrick Institute of African
Ornithology
(2020).
(54)
Clode (2002); Dounias
(2018); Hawkins and Cook (1908);
Peterson et al.
(2008).
(55)
Spottiswoode and
Koorevaar
(2012).
(56)
van der Wal et al.
(2022).
(57)
Spottiswoode et al.
(2011). See also FitzPatrick
Institute of African Ornithology
(2020).
(58)
Wario et al. (2015). See
also Boenisch et al. (2018) and Wario
et al. (2017).
(59)
Wario et al.
(2015).
(60)
BroodMinder (2020);
IoBee (2018); OSbeehives
(n.d.).
(61)
McQuate
(2018).
(62)
Wyss Institute (2020);
MAV Lab
(2020).
(63)
Hadagali and Suan
(2017); Kosek (2010); Mehta et al.
(2017).
(64)
Couvillon and Ratnieks
(2015).
(65)
Kosek (2010); Moore and
Kosut (2013).
(66)
Sinks
(1944).
(67)
Kosek (2010); Schaeffer
(2018).
(68)
Lockwood
(2008).
(69)
Kosek (2010); Moore and
Kosut (2013).
(70)
Ebert (2017); Leek
(1975).
(71)
Rangarajan
(2008).
(72)
Scheinberg
(1979).
(73)
Cook (1894); Crane
(1999); Crane and Graham (1985);
Gimbutas (1974); Lawler (1954); Posey
(1983); Ransome (2004); Sipos et al.
(2004); Stillwell
(2012).
الفصل التاسع: إنترنت الكائنات الأرضية
(1)
Reiss et al.
(2013).
(2)
The mirror self-recognition
test was developed in the 1970s by
American psychologist Gordon Gallup, as a
method for determining whether animals
possess the capacity of visual
self-recognition: Gallup (1970). See also
Bekoff (2002) and Bekoff and Sherman
(2004).
(3)
Gershenfeld, quote from TED
talk:
https://blog.ted.com/the-interspecies-internet-diana-reiss-peter-gabriel-neil-gershenfeld-and-vint-cerf-at-ted2013/.
(4)
See
https://www.interspecies.io/about.
(5)
Andreas et al.
(2021).
(6)
Bilal et al.
(2020).
(7)
Allen et al. (2017,
2018, 2019); Ferrer-i-Cancho and
McCowan (2009); Gustison and Bergman
(2017); Gustison et al. (2016);
Heesen et al. (2019); Semple et al.
(2010).
(8)
The Zipf-Mandelbrot law
holds true, with remarkable
consistency, across all known human
languages. The law establishes a
quantifiable (inverse power law)
relationship between individual
signals and their frequency of use.
As the amount of transmitted
information increases, a
communication channel increases in
complexity, but this places higher
motor and cognitive demands on an
animal—both for accurate signal
interpretation and for meaningful
signal production. This creates a
trade-off between information content
and cognitive complexity; balancing
this trade-off may have played a role
in the evolution of human languages
and may be universal to communication
in general. If so, a similar pattern
may be used as an indicator of
language-like communication in
nonhumans; conversely, communication
systems that do not exhibit this
pattern are unlikely to be complex
languages. The greater the departure
of the frequency distribution of
animal sounds from the
Zipf-Mandelbrot curve, the lower the
likelihood that vocalizations made by
any particular species are complex
languages: Fedurek et al. (2016);
Ferrer-i-Cancho (2005);
Ferrer-i-Cancho and Solé (2003);
McCowan et al. (2005); Seyfarth and
Cheney (2010).
(9)
Matzinger and Fitch
(2021).
(10)
Da Silva et al. (2000);
Doyle et al. (2008); Freeberg et al.
(2012); Freeberg and Lucas (2012);
Kershenbaum et al. (2021); Shannon
(1948); Suzuki et al.
(2006).
(11)
See, for example, Mann
et al. (2021) and Kershenbaum et al.
(2021).
(12)
Allen et al. (2019);
Engesser and Townsend (2019); Speck
et al. (2020); Zuberbühler (2015,
2018).
(13)
Bermant et al.
(2019).
(15)
Gardner and Gardner
(1969); Gardner et al.
(1989).
(16)
Hurn
(2020).
(17)
McKay (2020); Pedersen
(2020); Perlman and Clark (2015);
Reno (2012).
(18)
Pepperberg
(2009).
(19)
Ralls et al.
(1985).
(20)
Eaton
(1979).
(21)
Stoeger et al.
(2012).
(22)
Hurn
(2020).
(23)
Herzing
(2010).
(24)
Kohlsdorf et al. (2013);
Ramey et al.
(2018).
(25)
Herzing (2014, 2015,
2016); Herzing and Johnson (2015);
Herzing et al. (2018); Kohlsdorf et
al. (2014,
2016).
(26)
Hooper et al. (2006);
Kaplan et al. (2018); Marino et al.
(1993, 1994); McCowan and Reiss
(1995, 1997); Morrison and Reiss
(2018); Reiss and Marino (2001);
Sarko and Reiss
(2002).
(27)
Reiss and McCowan
(1993).
(28)
Meyer et al. (2021);
Woodward et al. (2020a,
2020b).
(29)
See
http://www.m2c2.net/.
(30)
Manual labeling worked
as follows. To begin, volunteers were
presented with an enlarged image of a
spectrogram and listened to the
corresponding sound by clicking on
the image. Then they listened to
randomly paired calls from the
project’s database. If they found a
match, the volunteers clicked on the
spectrogram and the results were
stored as a match. By repeating the
steps with large numbers of
volunteers, the reliability of the
matches
increased.
(31)
Mager et al.
(2021).
(32)
Novel techniques include
the use of back translation and
synthetic training data. However,
these techniques are imperfect, and
AI algorithms still fall prey to
common flaws (overly literal
interpretation, poor performance on
colloquial language, conflating
different
dialects).
(33)
Within the past ten
years, a specific type of machine
learning called deep learning (also
referred to as artificial neural
networks) has been deployed, with
remarkable results, in natural
language processing (NLP) tasks,
including machine translation and
reading comprehension. These neural
networks learn to encode words and
sequences as vectors (directional
sequences of real numbers). A key
innovation of neural networks is that
the vectors do not follow classical
linguistic structures or rules;
rather, mathematical operations
applied to these vectors produce the
outputs. In other words, the
linguistic competence acquired by
neural networks does not depend on
prior knowledge of linguistic rules
or structures. See Linzen and Baroni
(2021).
(34)
Mikolov et al.
(2013).
(35)
Artetxe et al. (2017);
Conneau et al.
(2017).
(36)
Ethayarajh (2019);
Ethayarajh et al. (2018); Schuster et
al. (2019). See also Dabre et al.
(2020).
(37)
Acconcjaioco and
Ntalampiras (2021); Huang et al.
(2021); Wolters et al.
(2021).
(38)
Chung et al.
(2018).
(39)
Another building block
required for a nonhuman dictionary is
a standardized phonetic alphabet for
nonhuman sounds. In 2021,
computational linguist Robert Eklund
proposed the creation of animIPA—a
nonhuman version of the International
Phonetic Alphabet (known as IPA),
which would incorporate sounds
characteristic of nonhumans (such as
the egressive and ingressive
airstreams associated with sounds
like purring and roaring) in a
standardized chart of phonetic
symbols and, eventually,
unicodes.
(40)
Bekoff (2002); Bekoff et
al. (2002); De Waal (2016); De Waal
and Preston (2017); Dolensek et al.
(2020); Panksepp (2004); Preston and
De Waal
(2002).
(41)
Dolensek et al. (2020);
Girard and Bellone
(2020).
(42)
Neff
(2019).
(43)
Roemer et al.
(2021).
(44)
On BirdNET, see Kahl et
al. (2021). See also Gupta et al.
(2021); Zhang et al.
(2021);
(45)
This issue can be
addressed by supplementing training
data with background noise in order
to simulate different acoustic
environments: Krause et al. (2016);
Salamon and Bello
(2017).
(46)
Fairbrass et al. (2019);
Salamon and Bello
(2017).
(47)
Wndchrm has been
applied to analyze astronomy datasets
(revealing new insights about the
rotation of galaxies), pop songs
(they’ve gotten sadder and angrier
since the 1950s), and even visual
art; Wndchrm can
distinguish between impressionism,
expressionism, and surrealism (with
an accuracy rate of over 90 percent):
Kuminski et al. (2014); Napier and
Shamir (2018); Shamir et al. (2008,
2010).
(48)
Bergler et al. (2021);
Bermant et al. (2019); Kaplun et al.
(2020); Lu et al. (2020); Mac Aodha
et al. (2018); Shamir et al. (2014);
Usman et al. (2020); Wang et al.
(2018); Zhang et al.
(2019).
(49)
Abbasi et al. (2021);
Coffey et al. (2019); Fonseca et al.
(2021); Hertz et al. (2020); Ivanenko
et al. (2020); Marconi et al.
(2020).
(50)
Barbieri (2007); von
Uexküll (2001, 2010). See also
Schroer (2021) and Tønnessen
(2009).
(51)
Mancini (2011). See also
Hirskyj-Douglas et al. (2018);
Mancini
(2016).
(52)
Bozkurt et al. (2014);
Byrne et al. (2017); Valentin et al.
(2015).
(53)
French et al.
(2020).
(54)
Neethirajan
(2017).
(55)
Aspling (2015); Aspling
and Juhlin (2017); Aspling et al.
(2016, 2018); Barreiros et al.
(2018); Grillaert and Camenzind
(2016).
(56)
van Eck and Lamers
(2006, 2017).
(57)
French et al.
(2020).
(58)
Baskin and Zamansky
(2015); Lee et al. (2020);
Piitulainen and Hirskyj-Douglas
(2020); Pons and Jaen (2016); Webber
et al. (2017a, 2017b, 2020);
Westerlaken (2020); Westerlaken and
Gualeni (2014); Zeagler et al. (2014,
2016).
(59)
Cianelli and Fouts
(1998); Fouts et al. (1984); Gardner
and Gardner (1969); Gisiner and
Schusterman (1992); Herman et al.
(1984); Pepperberg (2009); Reiss and
McCowan (1993); Schusterman and
Krieger (1984, 1986); Sevcik and
Savage-Rumbaugh
(1994).
(60)
Amundin et al. (2008);
Boysen and Berntson (1989); Egelkamp
and Ross (2019); Herman et al. (1984,
1990); Kilian et al. (2003);
Knörnschild and Fernandez (2020);
Pepperberg (1987, 2006, 2009); Reiss
and McCowan (1993); Savage-Rumbaugh
and Fields (2000); Schusterman and
Krieger (1984,
1986).
(61)
Landgraf et al. (2011,
2012, 2018).
(62)
Bonnet et al. (2018);
Bonnet and Mondada
(2019).
(63)
Hofstadler et al.
(2017); Wahby et al.
(2016).
(64)
Bonnet et al. (2018);
Cazenille et al. (2018); Gribovskiy
et al. (2015); Griparić et al.
(2017); Halloy et al. (2007);
Katzschmann et al. (2018); Landgraf
et al. (2012); D. Romano et al.
(2017a, 2017b, 2019); W. B. Romano et
al. (2019); Shi et al. (2014);
Stefanec et al. (2017); Swain et al.
(2011); Vaughan et al. (2000); Wahby
et al. (2018a,
2018b).
(65)
Moore et al. (2017). See
also
https://vihar.lis-lab.fr/.
(66)
Mac Aodha et al. (2018);
Bonnet et al. (2019); Brattain et al.
(2016); Carpio et al. (2017); FitBark
(2020); Haladjian, Ermis, et al.
(2017); Haladjian, Hodaie, et al.
(2017); Kreisberg (1995); Neethirajan
(2017); Oikarinen et al. (2019);
Siddharthan et al. (2012); Yonezawa
et al. (2009).
(67)
Bonnet et al. (2019);
Schaeffer
(2017).
(68)
Garnett et al. (2018);
Kimmerer (2013); Schuster et al.
(2019).
(69)
Ansell and Koenig
(2011); Kyem (2000); Louis et al.
(2012); Pearce and Louis (2008); Pert
et al. (2015); Rundstrom
(1995).
(70)
Dowie (2009); Rundstrom
(1991).
(71)
Carroll et al. (2019);
Global Indigenous Data Alliance
(2020); Kukutai and Taylor (2016);
Kyem (2000); Rundstrom
(1995).
(72)
Hagood
(2018).
(73)
Ritts and Bakker
(2021).
(74)
Carroll et al.
(2019).
(75)
Lovett et al.
(2019).
(76)
Kukutai and Taylor
(2016).
(77)
Watts
(2013).
(78)
Salmón
(2000).
(79)
Cruikshank (2012, 2014);
Hall (2011); Kimmerer
(2013).
(80)
Deloria (1986,
1999).
(81)
TallBear
(2011).
(82)
Watts (2013,
2020).
(83)
Kimmerer (2017,
251).
(84)
Kimmerer (2017,
131).
(85)
Low et al.
(2012).
(86)
Marino et al. (2007);
Reiss (1988); Reiss et al. (1997);
Whitehead et al. (2004); Whitehead
and Rendell
(2014).
(87)
See, for example,
Andrews and Beck
(2018).
(88)
For example, see the
exchanges between Hauser, Chomsky,
and Fitch versus Pinker and
Jackendoff: Fitch (2005, 2010); Fitch
et al. (2005); Hauser et al. (2002);
Pinker and Jackendoff
(2005).
(89)
Hurn (2020); Kulick
(2017).
الفصل العاشر: الإصغاء إلى شجرة الحياة
(1)
Pershing et al.
(2015).
(2)
Record et al.
(2019).
(3)
Clark et al. (2010); Davis
et al. (2017, 2020); Grieve et al.
(2017); Meyer-Gutbrod and Greene (2018);
Meyer-Gutbrod et al. (2018); Record et
al. (2019); Scales et al. (2014); Simard
et al. (2019); Woodson and Litvin
(2015).
(4)
Almén et al. (2014); Grieve
et al. (2017); Wishner et al.
(2020).
(5)
MacKenzie et al.
(2014).
(6)
Stokstad
(2017).
(7)
Whale mortality statistics
are gathered separately on the US and
Canadian sides of the border; the total
observed mortality, due to shipping and
fishing, of North American right whales
in 2017 was estimated at 4 percent of the
population: Davies and Brillant (2019);
Daoust et al. (2017); Johnson et al.
(2021); Koubrak et al. (2021); Sharp et
al. (2019).
(8)
Davies and Brillant (2019);
Department of Fisheries and Oceans
(2017).
(9)
Gavrilchuk et al. (2021).
See also Williams
(2019).
(10)
Davies and Brillant
(2019).
(11)
Detailed statistics on North
Atlantic right whale mortalities are kept
by NOAA:
https://www.fisheries.noaa.gov/national/marine-life-distress/2017-2021-north-atlantic-right-whale-unusual-mortality-event.
(12)
Parks et al.
(2011).
(13)
Davis et al.
(2020).
(14)
CBC News (2020). See also
Gervaise et al.
(2021).
(15)
Government of Canada
(2021a).
(16)
Government of Canada
(2021b).
(17)
Subsection 38(1) of the
Canada Shipping Act allows for fines of
up to $1 million or a prison term
not exceeding eighteen months (or both)
for violations of a regulation that
implements Canada’s international
obligations: Koubrak et al.
(2021).
(18)
All fishers and harvesters
using ropes are also required to use only
weak ropes in fixedgear fishing, so that
ropes can break to help whales
self-release if they become entangled. A
major “ghost gear” initiative has been
launched to fund the recovery of lost
nets, ropes, and lines, which also pose a
major threat to the
whales.
(19)
Durette-Morin et al. (2019).
See also
http://whalemap.ocean.dal.ca/.
(20)
Lostanlen et al.
(2021).
(21)
Carnarius (2018);
International Chamber of Shipping
(2020).
(22)
Channel Islands National
Marine Sanctuary
(n.d.).
(23)
Morgan Visalli,
interview with author, November 2020;
see also Visalli et al.
(2020).
(24)
Olson
(2020).
(25)
Similar systems have
already been used with some success
for right whales in the North
Atlantic: National Geographic (2020);
NOAA Fisheries (2020a, 2020b);
Nrwbuoys.org
(2020).
(26)
Baumgartner et al.
(2019).
(27)
Abrahms et al.
(2019).
(28)
Whale Safe’s acoustic
data is continuously monitored, and
updates are sent every two hours.
Visual data is sourced via Whale
Alert (a citizen science app, with
more activity at peak whale watching,
tourist, and recreational boater
seasons) and Spotter Pro (an app used
by professional naturalists and
scientists). Modeling data on
oceanographic conditions favoring
whales is updated daily. Ship
position data is updated daily, with
a two- to three-day
lag.
(29)
Fox (2020); Olson
(2020); Simon
(2020).
(30)
See
http://www.whalealert.org.
(31)
CBC News (2019);
Jeffrey-Wilensky (2019); Lubofsky
(2019); Murray
(2019).
(32)
Davies (2019);
Durette-Morin et al.
(2019).
(33)
Barlow and Torres
(2021); Barlow et al. (2018, 2020,
2021); Torres (2013); Torres et al.
(2020).
(34)
New Zealand Supreme
Court (2021).
(35)
Barlow and Torres
(2021).
(36)
Lavery et al. (2010);
Pershing et al. (2010); Roman et al.
(2014).
(37)
Chami et al.
(2019).
(38)
IPCC
(2019).
(39)
Poloczanska
(2018).
(40)
Abecasis et al. (2018);
Cooke et al. (2011); Cowley et al.
(2017); Currier et al. (2015); Haver
et al. (2018); Steckenreuter et al.
(2017).
(41)
Proulx et al.
(2019).
(42)
Jones et al. (2020);
McWhinnie et al. (2018); Siders et
al. (2016).
(43)
Cooke et al. (2017);
Hays et al. (2016); Wilmers et al.
(2015).
(44)
Our ability to watch and
listen to animals in places that we
could not reach in the past has given
rise to new bioacoustics methods in
the field of movement ecology—a
scientific discipline dedicated to
understanding the movements of
organisms across space and time. See
Nathan et al. (2008) and Fraser et
al. (2018).
(45)
Chalmers et al. (2021);
Dodgin et al.
(2020).
(46)
Burke et al.
(2012).
(47)
Braulik et al. (2017);
Showen et al. (2018); Woodman et al.
(2003, 2004). See also Gibb et al.
(2019).
(48)
Culik et al. (2017);
Curé et al. (2013); Omeyer et al.
(2020).
(49)
See, for example, Todd
et al. (2019).
(50)
Clark et al.
(2009).
(51)
Chou et al.
(2021).
(52)
Lindsay
(2012).
(53)
Erbe et al.
(2019).
(54)
Boyd et al.
(2011).
(55)
Duarte et al.
(2021).
(56)
Rolland et al.
(2012).
(57)
Jariwala et al. (2017);
Passchier-Vermier and Passchier
(2000).
(58)
Despite the findings,
the federal government authorized
permits for oil and gas exploration
companies to use seismic noise
cannons to map the ocean floor off
the east coast, in preparation for
possible drilling. See Struck
(2014).
(59)
Jones et al.
(2020).
(60)
Charifi et al. (2017);
Erbe et al. (2018); Kaifu et al.
(2007).
(61)
de Soto et al. (2013);
Hawkins et al. (2015); McCauley et
al. (2003); Popper and Hastings
(2009); Richardson et al.
(1995).
(62)
Fewtrell and McCauley
(2012); Kostyuchenko (1971); McCauley
et al. (2017); Neo et al. (2015);
Pearson et al.
(1992).
(63)
Di Franco et al. (2020);
Dwyer and Orgill (2020); Erbe et al.
(2018); Kavanagh et al.
(2019).
(64)
Francis and Barber
(2013); Kight and Swaddle (2011);
McGregor et al.
(2013).
(65)
For a metareview, see
Barber et al. (2010) and Duquette et
al. (2021).
(66)
This is known as the
Lombard effect. See, for example,
Brown et al.
(2021).
(67)
Gomes et al.
(2021).
(68)
Cinto Mejia et al.
(2019); McClure et al. (2013, 2017);
Ware et al. (2015). Similar results
have been found with “phantom gas
fields” (recorders that play the
sounds of compressors and other
machinery used in natural gas
extraction)—a concern given that six
hundred thousand new gas wells have
been drilled across North America in
the past twenty
years.
(69)
Barber et al. (2011);
Buxton et al.
(2017).
(70)
Mariette et al. (2021).
See also Nedelec et al. (2014) and
Rivera et al.
(2018).
(71)
Jain-Schlaepfer et al.
(2018).
(72)
Buehler (2019). See also
Fakan and McCormick
(2019).
(73)
Boudouresque et al.
(2006, 2016); Hemminga and Duarte
(2000); Lamb et al. (2017); UNEP
(2020).
(74)
Boudouresque et al.
(2009); Capó et al. (2020); Edwards
(2021); Green et al. (2021); Jordà et
al. (2012); Krause-Jensen et al.
(2021).
(75)
André et al. (2011);
Solé et al. (2013a, 2013b, 2016,
2017, 2018, 2019, 2021a,
2021b).
(76)
den Hartog
(1970).
(77)
Arnaud-Haond et al.
(2012).
(78)
Statocysts enable
orientation, balance, sound
detection, and gravity perception in
marine organisms. They function in a
manner similar to inner ear organs in
fish, which detect particle motion
and pressure in water. In
cephalopods, which do not have ears,
statocysts are located within the
cephalic cartilage. Early stages of
cephalopods present sensory hair
cells grouped into lateral lines on
their heads and arms. This explains
how, even without ears, octopuses can
locate prey or predators,
particularly in low light conditions;
with their statocysts and multiple
arms lined with sensory hair cells,
they sense even tiny sounds through
vibrations in the
water.
(79)
Two types of noise
frequencies were used: scanning and
transmission electron microscopy
techniques. See Solé et al.
(2013b).
(80)
Solé et al.
(2018).
(81)
Solé et al.
(2021a).
(82)
Amyloplasts are
starch-filled plastids that orient
the plant in the water column, much
like sound-sensitive statocysts help
marine invertebrates orient in space.
Amyloplasts, somewhat like
mitochondria in our cells, are
separate organelles that are
surrounded by a double-lipid
membrane, and that possess their own
DNA. As they produce and store starch
inside the internal membrane
compartments, amyloplasts sediment
within cells; as they do so, they
trigger gravity signal transduction
in the plant (sending a message to
specific parts of the root, allowing
it to direct itself downward). See
Solé et al. (2021a). See also
Hashiguchi et al. (2013); Kuo (1978);
Pozueta-Romero et al. (1991); and
Yoder et al.
(2001).
(83)
Solé et al.
(2021a).
(84)
Solé et al.
(2021a).
(85)
Michel André and Marta
Solé, interview with author, October
2021.
(86)
An ecoacoustics index is
a mathematical function that
synthesizes key aspects of acoustic
energy in an “auditory scene.”
Indices can adopt a variety of
methods, such as calculating the
signal-to-noise ratio or the spectral
distribution of energy, or segmenting
the data into patterns associated
with acoustic events: Barchiesi et
al. (2015); Kholghi et al.
(2018).
(87)
An ecoacoustics index is
a dynamic measure; because the Earth
is balanced dynamically, forever
evolving in space and time,
ecoacoustics indices also evolve
dynamically.
(88)
See, for example,
Bohnenstiehl et al.
(2018).
(89)
Barzegar et al. (2015);
Basner et al. (2017); Bates et al.
(2020); Cantuaria et al. (2021);
Dutheil et al. (2020); Thompson et
al. (2020).
(90)
Boyd et al.
(2011).
(91)
Tamman
(2020).
(92)
For more on the
International Quiet Ocean Experiment
(or IQOE), see
https://www.iqoe.org/.
See also Tamman
(2020).
(93)
Basan et al. (2021);
Denolle and Nissen-Meyer (2020);
Derryberry et al. (2020); March et
al. (2021); Nuessly et al.
(2021).
(94)
Čurović et al. (2021);
see also Coll (2020); Cooke et al.
(2021); Ryan et al.
(2021).
(95)
Asensio, Aumond, et al.
(2020); Asensio, Pavón, et al.
(2020); Lecocq et al. (2020);
Silva-Rodríguez et al. (2021); Vishnu
Radhan (2020).
(96)
Sueur et al.
(2019).
(97)
Siddagangaiah et al.
(2021).
(98)
Burivalova et al.
(2019); Chen et al. (2011); Francis
et al. (2017); Gibbs and Bresich
(2001); Larom et al. (1997); Narins
and Meenderink (2014); Oliver et al.
(2018); Parmesan and Yohe (2003);
Sugai et al.
(2019).
(99)
Oliver et al.
(2018).
(100)
Sueur et al. (2019). See
also Krause and Farina
(2016).
(101)
Harries-Jones
(2009).
(102)
UNESCO
(2017).
(103)
Chou et al. (2021);
Duarte et al.
(2021).
(104)
Michel André and Marta
Solé, interview with author, October
2021.
(105)
See, for example,
Williams et al. (2018); Zwart et al.
(2014).
(106)
Eldridge
(2021).
(107)
Eldridge (2021,
4).
(108)
Wilson
(1997).
(109)
Coghlan
(2015).
(110)
Poppick
(2017).
(111)
Royal Society
(n.d.).
(112)
Ford
(2001).
الملحق ج
(1)
Bioacoustics is an
assemblage of various technologies:
recording devices that capture sound,
artificial intelligence algorithms that
analyze and classify the data, computers
that store and process the data, the
internet that shares the information, and
apps that bring this data into our
lives.
(2)
Vallee
(2018).
(3)
Jacoby et al.
(2016).
(4)
Gibb et al. (2019); Lucas et
al. (2015); Wrege et al.
(2017).
(5)
Frommolt and Tauchert
(2014).
(6)
Isaac et al. (2014);
Klingbeil and Willig
(2015).
(7)
Supper and Bijsterveld
(2015).
(8)
Cocroft et al. (2014); Hill
(2008); Hill and Wessel (2016, 2021);
Hill et al.
(2019).
(9)
Cocroft and Rodríguez
(2005); Cocroft et al. (2014); Gagliano,
Mancuso, et al. (2012); Gagliano, Renton,
et al. (2012); Hill and Wessel (2016);
Maeder et al. (2019); Michelsen et al.
(1982); Mortimer
(2017).
(10)
Cocroft et al. (2014); Hill
(2008); Hill and Wessel (2016); Narins et
al. (2016).
(11)
Hill
(2008).
(12)
Warkentin (2005,
2011).
(13)
Fabre et al. (2012); Hill
and Wessel (2021); McKelvey et al.
(2021).
(14)
Hill and Wessel
(2021).
(15)
Hill and Wessel
(2021).
(1)
Hutter and
Guayasamin
(2015).
(2)
Raick et al.
(2020).
(3)
Cerchio et
al.
(2020).
(4)
Buxton et
al.
(2016).
(5)
Dimoff et
al.
(2021).
(6)
Freeman
(2012); Freeman and Hare
(2015).
(7)
Derryberry
et al. (2020); Halfwerk
(2020).
(8)
Warkentin
(2005).
(9)
Zwart et al.
(2014).
(10)
Durette-Morin
et al. (2019); Visalli et al.
(2020).
(11)
Thorley and
Clutton-Brock
(2017).
(12)
Piniak
(2012); Piniak et al. (2018);
Tyson et al.
(2017).
(13)
Clay et al.
(2019); Gazo et al.
(2008).
(14)
Ausband et
al.
(2014).
(15)
King et al.
(2017).
(16)
Suraci et
al.
(2016).
(17)
W. B. Romano
et al.
(2019).
(18)
Gordon et
al.
(2019).
(19)
French et
al.
(2020).
(20)
Clark et al.
(2012).
(21)
Piitulainen
and Hirskyj-Douglas
(2020).
(22)
Partan et
al. (2009, 2010); Rundus et al.
(2007).
(23)
Narins et
al.
(2005).
(24)
Steiner et
al.
(2017).
