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قائمة المصادر والمراجع

المقدمة

(1)
Thierry Desjardins, Le Martyre du Liban (Paris: Plon, 1979), p. 14.
(2)
K. M. Panikkar, Asia and Western Dominance (London: George Alien & Unwin, 1959).
(3)
Denys Hay, Europe: The Emergence of an Idea, 2nd ed. (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1968).
(4)
Steven Marcus, The Other Victorians: A Study of Sexuality and Pornog-raphy in Mid-Nineteeth Century England (1966; reprint ed,. New York: Bantam Book, 1967), pp. 200-19.
(5)
See my Criticism Between Culture and System (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, forthcoming).
(6)
Principally in his American Power and the New Mand-rins: Historical and Political Essays (New York: Pantheon Book, 1973).
(7)
Walter Benjamin, Charles Baudelaire: A Lyric Poet in the Era of High Capitalism, trans. Harry Zohn (London: New Left Books, 1973), p. 71.
(8)
Harry Bracken, Essence, Accident and Race, ⋆Hermathena 116 (Winter 1973): 81–96.
(9)
In an Interview Published in Diacritics 6, no. 3 (Fall 1976): 38.
(10)
Raymond Williams, The Long Revolution (London: Chatto & Windus, 1961), pp. 66-7.
(11)
In my Beginnings: Intention and Method (New York: Basic Books, 1975).
(12)
Louis Althusser, For Marx, trans. Ben Brewster (New York: Pantheon Books, 1969), pp. 65–7.
(13)
Raymond Schwab, La Renaissance orientale (Paris: Payot, 1950); Johann W. Flick, Die Arabischen Studien in Europa bis in den Anfang des. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz, 1955); Dorothee MetHtzki. The Matter of Araby in Medieval England (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1977).
(14)
E. S. Shaffer, “Kubia Khan” and The Fall of Jerusalem: The Mythological School in Biblical Criticism and Secular Literature, 1770–1880 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975).
(15)
George Eliot, Middlemarch: A Study of Provincial Life (1872; reprint ed., Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1956), p. 164.
(16)
Antonio Gramsci, The Prison Notebooks: Selections, trans. and ed. Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith (New York: International Publishers, 1971), p. 324. The full passage, unavailable in the Hoare and Smith translation, is to be found in Gramsci. Quademi del Carcere, ed. Valentine Gerratana (Turin: Einaudi Editore, 1975), 2: 1363.
(17)
Raymond Williams, Culture and Society, 1780–1950 (London: Challo & Windus, 1958), p. 376.

الفصل الأول: نطاق الاستشراق

أولًا: معرفة الشرقي

(1)
This and the preceding quotations from Arthur James Balfour’s speech to the House of Commons are from Great Britain, Parliamentary Debates (Commons), 5th ser., 17 (1910): 1140–46. See also A. P. Thornton, The Imperial Idea and Its Enemies: A Study in British Power (London: Mac-Millan & Co., 1959), pp. 357–60. Balfour’s speech was a defense of Eldon Gorst’s policy in Egypt; for a discussion of that see Peter John Dreyfus Mcllini. “Sir Eldon Gorst and British Imperial Policy in Egypt,” unpublished ph.D. dissertation, Stanford University, 1971.
(2)
Denis Judd, Balfour and the British Empire: A Study in Imperial Evolution, 1874–1932 (London: Macmillan & Co., 1968), p. 286. See also p. 292: as late as 1926 Balfour spoke—without irony—of Egypt as an “independent nation”.
(3)
Evelyn Baring, Lord Cromer, Political and Literary Essays, 1908–1913 (1913; reprint ed., Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press, 1969), pp. 40, 53, 12–14.
(4)
Ibid., p. 171.
(5)
Roger Owen, “The Influence of Lord Cromer’s Indian Experience on British Policy in Egypt 1883–1907,” in Middle Eastern Affairs, Number Four: St. Antony’s Papers Number 17, ed. Albert Hourani (London: Oxford University Press, 1956), pp. 109–39.
(6)
Evelyn Baring, Lord Cromer, Modern Egypt (New York: Macmillan Co., 1908), 2: 146–67. For a British view of British policy in Egypt that runs totally counter to Cromer’s, see Wilfrid Scawan Blunt, Secret History of the English Occupation of Egypt: Being a Personal Narrative of Events (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1922). There is a valuable discussion of Egyption opposition to British rule in Mounah A. Khouri, Poetry and the Making of Modern Egypt, 1882–1922 (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1971).
(7)
Cromer, Modern Egypt, 2: 164.
(8)
Cited in John Marlowe, Cromer in Egypt (London: Eiek Books, 1970), p. 271.
(9)
Harry Magdoff, “Colonialism (1763–c. 1970),” Encyclopaedia Britonnica, 15th ed. (1974), pp. 893-4. See also D. K. Fieldhouse, The Colonial Empires: A Comparative Survey from the Eighteenth Century (New York: Delacorte Press, 1967), p. 178.
(10)
Quoted in Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid, Egypt and Cromer: A Study in Anglo-Egyption Relatian (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1969), p. 3.
(11)
The phrase is to be found in lan Hacking, The Emergence of Probability: A Philosophical Study of Early Ideas About Probability, Induction and Statistical Inference (London: Cambridge University Press, 1975), p. 17.
(12)
V. G. Kieman, The Lords of Human Kind: Black Man, Yellow Man and White Man in an Age of Empire (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1969), p. 55.
(13)
Edger Quinet, Le Genie des religions, in Oeuvres completes (Paris: Paguerre, 1857), pp. 55–74.
(14)
Cromer, Political and Literary Essays, p. 35.
(15)
See Jonah Raskin, The Mythology of Imperialism (New York: Random House, 1971), p. 40.
(16)
Henry A. Kissinger, American Foreign Policy (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1974), pp. 48-9.
(17)
Harold W. Glidden, “The Arab World,” American Journal of Psychiatry 128, no. 8 (February 1972): 984–8.

ثانيًا: الجغرافيا الخيالية وصورها

(1)
R. W. Southern, Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1962), p. 72. See also Francis Dvornik, The Ecumenical Councils (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1961), pp. 65-6: “Of special interest is the eleventh canon directing that chairs for teaching Hebrew, Greek, Arabic and Chaldean should created at the main universities. The suggestion was Raymond Lull’s, who advocatedlearning Arabic as the best means for the conversion of the Arabs. Although the canon remained almost without effect as there were few teachers of oriental languages, its acceptance indicates the growth of the missionary idea in the West. Gregory X had already hoped for the conversion of the Mongols, and Franciscan friars had penetrated into the depths of Asia in their missionary spiritcontinued to develop.” See also Johann W. Fuck, Die Arabischen Studien in Europa bis in den Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz, 1955).
(2)
Raymond Schwab, La Renaissance orientale (Paris: Payot, 1950). See also V.-V. Barthold, La Decouverte de l’Asie: Histoire de Vorientalisme en Europe et en Russie, trans. B. Nikitine (Paris: Payot, 1947), and the relevant pages in Theodor Benfey, Geschichte der Sprachwissenschaft und Orientalischen Philologie in Deutschichte (Munich: Goltafschen, 1869). For an instructive contrast see James T. Monroe, Islam and the Arabs in Spanish Scholarship (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1970).
(3)
Victor Hugo, Oeuvres poetiques, ed. Pierre Albouy (Pais: Gallimard, 1964), 1: 580.
(4)
Jules Mohl, Vingt-sept Ans d’histoire des etudes orientates: Rapports fails a la Societe asiatique de 1840 a 1867, 2 vols. (Paris: Reinwald, 1879-80).
(5)
Gustave Dugat, Histoire des orientalists de l’Europe du XIIs au XIX9 siecle, 2 vols. (Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve, 1868–70).
(6)
See Rene Gerard, L’Orient et la pensee romantique allemande (Paris: Didier, 1963), p. 112.
(7)
Kiernan, Lords of Human Kind, p. 131.
(8)
University Grants Committee, Report of the Sub-Committee on Oriental, Slavonic, East European and African Studies (London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, 1961).
(9)
H. A. R. Gibb, Area Studies Reconsidered (London; School of Oriental and African Studies, 1964).
(10)
See Claude Levi-Strauss, The Savage Mind (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), Chaps. 1–7.
(11)
Gaston Bachelard, The Poetics of Space, trans. Maria Jolas (New York: Orion Press, 1964).
(12)
Southern, WeJfern Views of Islam, p. 14.
(13)
Aeschylus, The Persians, trans. Anthony J. Podleck (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), pp. 73.
(14)
Euripides, The Bacchae, trans. Geoffrey S. Kirk (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1970), p. 3. For further discussion of the Europe orient distinction see Santo Mazzarino, Fra oriente e occidente: Ricerche di storia greca arcaica (Florence: La Nuova Italia, 1947), and Denys Hay, Europe: The Emergence of an Idea (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1968).
(15)
Euripides, Bacchae, p. 52.
(16)
Rene Grousset, L’Empira du Levant: Histoire de la question d’Orient (Paris: Payot, 1946).
(17)
Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1855), 6: 399.
(18)
Norman Danial, The Arabs and Medieval Europe (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1975), p. 56.
(19)
Samuel C. Chew, The Crescent and the Rose: Islam and England During the Renaissance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1937), p. 103.
(20)
Norman Danial, Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (Edinburgh: University Press, 1960), p. 33. See also James Kritzeck, Peter the Venerable and Islam (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1964).
(21)
Daniel, Islam and the West, p. 252.
(22)
Ibid., pp. 259-60.
(23)
See for example William Wistar Comfort, “The Literary Role of the Saracens in the French Epic,” PMLA 55 (1940): 628–59.
(24)
Southern, Western Views of Islam, pp. 91-2, 108-9.
(25)
Daniel, Islam and the West, pp. 246, 96, and Passim.
(26)
Ibid., p. 84.
(27)
Duncan Black Macdonald, “Whither Islam?” Muslim World 23 (January 1933): 2.
(28)
P. M. Holt, Introduction to the Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P. M. Holt, Anne K. S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), p. xvi.
(29)
Antoine Galland, prefatory “Discours” to Barthelemy d’Herbelot Bibliotheque orientale, ou Dictionnaire universel contenant tout ce qui fait connaitre les peuples de l’Orient (The Hague: Neauime & van Daalen, 1777), 1: vii. Galland’s point is that d’Herbelot presented real knowledge, not legend or myth of the sort associated with the “marvels of the East.” See R. Wittkower, “Marvels of the East: A Study in the History of Monsters,” Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Insittutes 5 (1942): 159–97.
(30)
Galland. Prefatory “Discours” to d’Herbelot, Bibliotheque orientale, pp. xvi, xxxiii. For the state of Orientalist knowledge immediately before d’Herbelot, see V. J. Parry, “Renaissance Historical Literature in Relation to the New and Middle East (with Special Refrence to Paolo Giovio), “in Historians of the Middle East,” ed. Bernard Lewis and P. M. Holt (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), pp. 277–89.
(31)
Barthold, La Decouverte de l’Asie, pp. 137-8.
(32)
D’Herbelot, Bibliotheque orientale, 2: 648.
(33)
See alse Montgomery Watt, “Muhammad in the Eyes of the West,” Boston University Journal 22, no. 3 (Fall 1974): 61–9.
(34)
Isaiah Berlin, Historical Inevitability (London: Oxford University Press, 1955), pp. 13-14.
(35)
Henri Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne, trans. Bernard Miall (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1939), pp. 234, 283.

ثالثًا: مشروعات

(1)
Quoted by Henri Baudot in Paradise on Earth: Some Thoughts on European Images of Non-European Man, trans. Elizabeth Wentholt (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1965), p. xiii.
(2)
Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 6: 289.
(3)
Baudet, Paradise on Earth, p. 4.
(4)
See Fieldhouse, Colonial Empires, pp. 138–61.
(5)
Schwab, La Renaissance orientale, p. 30.
(6)
A. J. Arberry, Oriental Essays: Portraits of Seven Scholars (New York: Macmillan Co., 1960), pp. 30, 31.
(7)
Raymond Schwab, Vie d’Anquetil-Duperron suivie des Usages civils et religieux des Perses par Anquetil-Duperron (Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1934), pp. 10, 96, 4, 6.
(8)
Arberry, Oriental Essays, pp. 62–6.
(9)
Frederick Eden Pargiter, ed., Centenary Volume of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland 1823–1923 (London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1923), p. viii.
(10)
Quinet, Le Genie des religions, p. 47.
(11)
Jean Thiry, Bonaparte en Egypt decembre 1797–24 about 1799 (Paris: Berger-Levrault, 1973), p. 9.
(12)
Constantin-Francois Volney, Voyage en Egypte et en Syrie (Paris: Bossange, 1821), 2: 241 and passim.
(13)
Napoleon, Campagnes d’Egypte et de Syrie, 1798-1799: Memoires pour servir a l’histoire de Napoleon (Paris: Comou, 1843), 1: 211.
(14)
Thiry, Bonaparte en Egypte, p. 126. See also Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Arab Rediscovery of Europe: A Study in Cultural Encounters (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963), pp. 12–20.
(15)
Abu-Lughod, Arab Rediscovery of Europe, p. 22.
(16)
Quoted from Arthur Helps, The Spanish Conquest of America (London, 1900), p. 196, by Stebhen J. Greenblatt, “Learning to Curse: Aspects of Linguistic Colonialism in the Sixteenth Century,” in First Images of America: The Impact of the New World on the Old, ed. Fredi Chiapelli (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967), p. 573.
(17)
Thiry, Bonaparte en Egypte, p. 200. Napoleon was not just being cynical. It is reported of him that he discussed Voltaire’s Mahomet with Goethe, and defended Islam. See Christian Cherfils, Bonaparte et l’Islam d’apres les documents francais arabes (Paris: A. Pedone, 1914), p. 249 and passim.
(18)
Thiry, Bonaparte en Egypte, p. 434.
(19)
Hugo, Les Orientates, in Oeuvres poetiques, 1: 684.
(20)
Henri Deherain, Silvestre de Sacy, ses contemporains et ses disciples (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1938), p. v.
(21)
Description de l’Egypte, ou Recueil des observations et des recherches qui ont ete faites in Egypte pendant l’expedition de Varmee francaise, public par les orders de sa majeste Fempereur Napoleon le grand, 23 vols. (Paris: Imprimerie imperial, 1809–28).
(22)
Fourier, Preface historique, vol. 1 of Description de l’Egypte, p. 175.
(23)
Ibid., p. iii.
(24)
Ibid., p. xcii.
(25)
Fitienne Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire, Histoire naturelle des poissons du Nil, vol. 17 of Description de l’Egypte, p. 2.
(26)
M. de Chabrol, Essai sur les moeurs des habitants modernes de l’Egypte, vol. 14 of Description de Egypte, p. 376.
(27)
This is evident in Baron Larrey, Notice sur la conformation physique des Egyptiens et des differetes races qui habitent en egypte, suivie de quelques reflexions sur l’embaumement des momies, vol. 13 of Description de l’Egypte.
(28)
Cited by John Marlowe, The Making of the Suez Canal (London: Cresset Press, 1964), p. 31.
(29)
Quoted in John Pudney, Suez: De Lesseps’ Canal (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1969), pp. 141-2.
(30)
Marlowe, Making of the Suez Canal, p. 62.
(31)
Ferdinand de Lesseps, Lettres, journal et documents pour servir d Thistoire du canal de Suze (Paris: Didier, 1881), 5: 310. For an apt characterization of de Lesseps and Cecil Rhodes as mystics, see Baudet, Paradise on Earth, p. 68.
(32)
Cited in Charles Beatty, De Lesseps of Suez: The Man and His Times (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1956), p. 220.
(33)
De Lesseps, Lettres, journal et documents, 5: 17.
(34)
Ibid., pp. 324–33.

رابعًا: الأزمة

(1)
Hayden White, Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth Century Europe (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973), p. 12.
(2)
Anwar Abdel Malek, “Orientalism in Crisis,” Diogenes 44 (Winter 1963): 107-8.
(3)
Friedrich Schlegel, Uber die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier: Ein Beitrag zur Begrundung der Alterturnstunde (Heidelberg: Mohr & Zimmer, 1808), pp. 44–59; Schlegel, Philosophic der Geschichte: In achtzehn Vorlesungen gehalten zu Wien im Jahre 1828, ed. Jean-Jacques Anstett, vol. 9 of Kritische Friedrich-Schlegel-Ausgabe, ed. Ernest Behler (Munich: FerdinandSchoningh, 1971), p. 275.
(4)
Leon Poliakov, The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe, trahs. Edmund Howard (New York: Basic Books, 1974).
(5)
See Derek Hopwood, The Russian Presence in Syria and Palestine, 1843–1943: Church and Politics in the Near East (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1969).
(6)
A. L. Tibawi, British Interests in Palestine, 1800–1901 (London: Oxfrod University Press, 1961), p. 5.
(7)
Gerard de Nerval, Oeuvres, ed. Albert Beguin and Jean Richet (Paris: Gallimard, 1960), 1: 580.
(8)
Hugo, Oeuvres poetiques, 1: 580.
(9)
Sir Walter Scot? The Talisman (1825; reprint ed., London: J. M. Dent, 1914), pp. 38-9.
(10)
See Albert Hourani, “Sir Hamilton Gibb, 1895–1971,” Proceedings of the British Academy 58 (1972): 495.
(11)
Quoted by B. R. Jerman, The Young Disraeli (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1960), p. 126. See Also Robert Blake, Disraeli (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1966), pp. 59–70.
(12)
Flaubert in Egypt: A Sensibility on Tour, trans. And ed. Francis Steegmuller (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1973), pp. 44-5. See Gustave Flaubert, Correspondance, ed. Jaun Bruneau (Paris: Gallimard, 1973), 1: 542.
(13)
This is the argument presented in Carl H. Becker, DOS Erbe der Antike im Orient und Okvdent (Leipzig: Quelle & Meyer, 1931).
(14)
See Louis Massignon, La Passion d’al-Hosayn-ibn-Mansour al-Hallaj (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1922).
(15)
Abdel Malek, “Orientalism in Crisis,” p. 112.
(16)
H. A. R. Gibb, Modern Trends in Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947), p. 7.
(17)
Gibb, Area Studies Reconsidered, pp. 12, 13.
(18)
Bernard Lewis, “The Return of Islam,” Commentary, January 1976, pp. 39–49.
(19)
See Danile Lerner and Harold Lasswell, eds., The Policy Sciences: Recent Developments in Scope and Method (Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press, 1951).
(20)
Morroe Berger, The Arab World Today (Garden City, N.Y.: Double day & Co., 1962), p. 158.
(21)
There is a compendium of such attitudes listed and criticized in Maxime Rodinson, Islam and Capitalism, trans. Brian Pearce (New York: Pantheon Books, 1973).
(22)
Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, “Retreat from the Secular Path? Islamic Dilemmas of Arab Politics,” Review of Politics 28, no. 4 (October 1966): 475.

الفصل الثاني: أبنية الاستشراق وإعادة بنائها

أولًا: حدود أعادوا رسمها، وقضايا أعادوا تعريفها ودين جعلوه علمانيًّا

(1)
Gustave Flaubert, Bouvard et Pecuchet, vol. 2 of Oeuvres, ed. A. Thibaudet and R. Dumesnil (Paris: Gallimard, 1952), p. 985.
(2)
There is an illuminating account of these visions and Utopias in Donald G. Chariton, Seculer Religions in France, 1815–1870 (London: Oxford University Press, 1963).
(3)
M. H. Abrams, Natural Supernaturalism: Tradition and Revolution in Romantic Literature (New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1971), p. 66.
(4)
For some illuminating material see John P. Nash, “The Connection of Oriental Studies with Commerce, Art, and Literature During the 18th-19th Centuries,” Manchester Egyptian and Oriental Society Journal 15 (1930): 33–9; also John F. Laffey, “Roots of French Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century: The Case of Lyon,” French Historical Studies 6, no. 1 (Spring 1969): 78–92, and R. Leportier, L’Orient Porte des lndes (Paris: editions France-Empire, 1970). There is a great deal of information in Henri Omont, Missions archeologiques francaises en Orient aux XVIIs et XVIII6 siecles, 2 vols. (Paris: Imprimerie nationale, 1902), and in Margaret T. Hodgen, Early Anthropology in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1964), as well as in Norman Daniel, Islam, Europe and Empire (Edinburgh: University Press, 1966). Two indispensable short studies are Albert Hourani, “Islam and the Philosophers of History,” Middle Eastern Studies 3, no. 3 (April 1967): 206–68, and Maxime Rodinson, “The Western Image and Western Studies of Islam,” in The Legacy of Islam, ed. Joseph Schacht and and C. E. Bosworth (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1974), pp. 9–62.
(5)
P. M. Hotel, “The Treatment of Arab History by Prideaux, Ockley, and Sale,” in Historians of the Middle East, ed. Bernard Lewis and P. M. Holt (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), p. 302, See also Holt’s The Study of Modern Arab History (London: School of Oriental and African Studies, 1965).
(6)
The view of Herder as populist and pluralist is advocated by Isaiah Berlin, Vico and Herder: Two Studies in the History of Ideas (New York: Viking Press, 1976).
(7)
For a discussion of such motifs and representations, see Jean Starobinski, The Invention of Liberty, 1700–1789, trans. Bernard C. Smith (Geneva, Skira, 1964).
(8)
There are a small number of studies on this too-little-investigated subject. Some well-known ones are: Martha P. Conant, The Oriental Tale in England in the Eighteenth Century (1908; reprint ed., New York: Octagon Books, 1967); Marie E. de Meester, Oriental Influences in the English Literature of the Nineteenth Century, Anglistische Forschungen, no. 46 (Heidelberg, 1915); Byron Porter Smith, Islam in English Literature (Beirut: American Press, 1939). See also Jean-Luc Doutrelant, “L’Orient tragique au XVIIP siècle,” Revue des Sciences Humaines 146 (April–June 1972): 255–82
(9)
Michel Foucault, The Order of Thing: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (New York: Pantheon Books, 1970), pp. 138, 144. See also Francois Jacob, The Logic of Life: A History of Heredity, trans. Betty E. Spillmann (New York: Pantheon Books, 1973), p. 50 and Passim, and Georges Canguilhem, La Connaissance de la vie (Paris: Gustave-Joseph Vrin, 1969), pp. 44–63.
(10)
See John G, Burke, “The Wild Man’s Pedigree: Scientific Method and Racial Anthropology,” in The Wild Man Within: An Image in Western Thought from the Renaissance to Romanticism, ed, Edward Dudley and Maximillian E. Novak (Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1972), pp. 262–8. See also Jean Biou, “Lumieres et anthropophagie,” Revue des Sciences Humaines 146 (April-June 1972): 223–34.

ثانيًا: سلفستردي ساسي وإرنست رينان

(1)
Henri Deherain, Silvestre de Sacy: Ses Contemporains et ses disciples (Paris: Paul Geuther, 1938), p. 111.
(2)
For these and other details see ibid., pp. i-xxxiii.
(3)
Due de Broglie, “Eloge de Silvestre de Sacy,” in Sacy, Melanges de litterature orientale (Paris: E. Ducrocq, 1833), p. xii.
(4)
Bon Joseph Dacier, Tableau historique de l’erudition francaisa, ou Rapport sur les progres de fhistoire et de la litterature ancienne depuis 1789 (Paris: Imprimerie imperiale, 1810), pp. 23, 31, 35.
(5)
Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Pantheon Books, 1977), pp. 193-4.
(6)
Broglie, “Eloge de Silvestre de Sacy,” p. 107.
(7)
Sacy, Melanges de litterature orientale, pp. 107, 110, 111-12.
(8)
Silvestre de Sacy, Chrestomathie arabe, ou Extraits de divers ecrivains arabes, tant en prose qu’en vers, avec une traduction francaise et des notes, d l’usage des eleves de l’Ecole royale royale et special des langues orientales vivantes (vol. 1, 1826; reprint ed., Osnabriick: Biblio Verlag, 1973), p. viii.
(9)
For the notions of “supplementarity” “supply,” and “supplication,” see Jacques Derrida, De la grammatologia (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1967), p. 203 and passim.
(10)
For a partial list of Sacy’s students and influence see Johann W. Fuck, Die Arabischen Studien in Europa bis in den An fang des 20. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig: Otto Harrassowitz, 1955), pp. 156-7.
(11)
Foucault’s characterization of an archive can be found in The Archaeology of Knowledge and the Discourse on Language, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith and Rupert Sawyer (New York: Pantheon Books, 1972), pp. 79–131.
Gabril Monod, one of Renan’s younger and very perspicacious contemporaries, remarks that Renan was by no means a revolutionary in linguistics, archaeology, or exegesis, yet because he had the widest and the most precise learning of anyone in his period, he was its most eminent representative (Renan, Taine, Michelet [Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1894], pp. 40-1). See also Jean-Louis Dumas, “La Philosophic de l’histoire de Renan,” Revue de Metaphysique et de Morale 77, no. 1 (January-March 1972): 100–28.
(12)
Honore de Balzac, Louis Lambert (Paris: Calmann-Levy, n.d.), p. 4.
(13)
Nietzsche’s remarks on philology are everywhere throughout his works. See principally his notes for “Wir Philologen” taken from his notebooks for the period January-July 1875, translated by William Arrowsmith as “Notes for ‘We Philologists’,” Arion, N. S. (1974): 279–380; also the passages on language and perspectivism in The Will to power, trans. Walter Kaufmann and R. J. Hollingdale (New York: Vintage Books, 1968).
(14)
Ernest Renan, L’Avenir de la science: Pensees de 1848, 4th ed. (Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1890), pp. 141, 142–5, 146, 148, 149.
(15)
Ibid., p. xiv and passim.
(16)
The entir opening chapter—bk. 1, chap 1—of the Histoire generate et systeme compare des langues semitiques, in Oeuvres completes, ed. Henriette Psichari (Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1947–61), 8: 143–63, is a virtual encyclopedia of race prejudice directed against semites (i.e., Moslems and Jews). The rest of the treatise is sprinkled generously with the same notions, as are many of Renan’s other works, including L’Avenir de la science, especially Renan’s notes.
(17)
Ernest Renan, Correspondence; 1846–1871 (Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1926), 1: 7–12.
(18)
Ernest Renan, Souvenirs d’enfance et de jeunesse, in Oeuvres completes, 2: 892. Two works by Jean Pommier treat Renan’s mediation between religion and philology in valuable detail: Renan, d’apres des documents inedits (Paris: Penin, 1923), pp. 48–68, and La Jeunesse clericale d’Ernest Renan (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 1933). There is a more recent account in J. Chaix-Ruy, Ernest Renan (Paris: Emmanuel Vitte 1956), pp. 89–111.
The standard description—done more in terms of Renan’s religious vocation is still valuable also: Pierre Lasserre, La Jeunesse d’Ernest Renan: Histoire de la crise religieuse au XIX9 siecle, 3 vols. (Paris: Gamier Freres, 1925). In vol. 2, pp. 50–166 and 265–98 are useful on the relations between philology, philosophy, and science.
(19)
Ernest Renan, “Des services rendus aux sciences historiques par la philologia,” in Oeuvres completes 8: 1228.
(20)
Renan, Souvenirs, p. 892.
(21)
Foucault, The Order of Things, pp. 290–300. Along with the discrediting of the Edenic origins of language, a number of other events—the Deluge, the building of the Tower Babel—also were discredited as explanations. The most comprehensive history of theories of linguistic origin is Arno Borst, Der Turmbau von Bable: Geschichte der Meinungen uber Ursprung und Vielfalt der Sprachen und Volker, 6 vols, (Stuttgart: Anton Hiersemann, 1957–63).
(22)
Quoted by Raymond Schwab, La Renaissance orientale (Paris: Payot, 1950), p. 69. On the dangers of too quickly succumbing to generalities about Oriental discoveries, see the reflections of the distinguished contemporary Sinologist Able Remusat, Melanges postumes d’histoire et litterature orientales (Paris: Imprimerie royale, 1843), p. 226 and passim.
(23)
Samule Taylor Coleridge, Biographia Literaria, chap. 16, in Selected poetry and Prose of Coleridge, ed. Donald A, Stauffer (New York: Random House, 1951), pp. 276-7.
(24)
Benjamin Constant, Oeuvres, ed. Alfred Roulin (Paris: Gallimard, 1957), p. 78.
(25)
Abrams, Natural Supernaturalism, p. 29.
(26)
Renan, De l’origine du langage, in Oeuvres completes, 8: 122.
(27)
Renan, “De la part des peuples semitiques dans l’histoire de la civilisation,” in Oeuvres completes, 2: 320.
(28)
Ibid., p. 333.
(29)
Renan, “Trois Professeurs au College de France: Etienne Quatremere,” Oeuvres completes, 1: 129. Renan was not wrong about Quatremere,” who had a talent for Picking interesting subjects to study and then making the quite uninteresting. See his essays “Le Gout des livres chez les orientaux” and “Des sciences chez les arabes,” in his Melanges d’histoire et de philologie orientales (Paris: E. Ducrocq, 1861), pp. 1–57.
(30)
Honore de Balzac, La Peau de chagrin, vol. 9 (Etudes philosophiques 1) of La Comedie humaine, ed. Marcel Bouteron (Paris: Gallimard, 1950), p. 39; Renan, Histoire generale des langues semitiques, p. 134.
(31)
See, for instance, De l’origine de langage, p. 102, and Histoire generale, p. 180.
(32)
Renan, L’Avenir de la science, p. 23. The whole passage reads as follows: “Pour moi, je ne connais qu’un seui resultat a la science, c’est de resoudre l’enigme, c’est de dire definitivement a l’homme le mot des choses, c’est de l’expliquer a lui-meme, c’est de lui donner, au nom de la seule autorite legitime qui est la nature humaine toute entiere, le symbole que les religions lui donnaient tout fait et qu’ils ne peut plus accepter”.
(33)
See Madeleine V.-David, Le Debat sur les ecritures et l’hUroglyphe aux XVII9 et XVIII⋆ siecles et l’application de la notion de dechiffrement aux ecritures mortes (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1965), p. 130.
(34)
Renan is mentioned only in passing in Schwab’s La Renaissance orientale, not at all in Foucault’s The Order of Things, and only somewhat disparagingly in Holger Pederson’s The Discovery of Language: Linguistic Science in the Nineteenth Century, trans. John Webster Spargo (1931; reprint ed., Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1972). Max Miller in his Lectures on the Science of Language (1861–64; reprint ed., New York: Scribner, Armstrong, & Co., 1875) and Gustave Dugat in his Histoire des orientalistes de l’Europe du XI Is au XIXe siecle, 2 vols. (Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve, 1868–70) do not mention Renan at all. James Darmesteter’s Essais Orientaux (Paris: A. Levy, 1883)—whose first item is a history, “L’Orientalisme en France”—is dedicated to Renan but does not mention his contribution. There are half-a-dozen short notices of Renan’s production in Jules Mohl’s encyclopedic (and extremely valuable) quasi-logbook, Vingtsept ans d’histoire des etudes orientales: Rapports faits a la Societe asiatique de Paris de 1840 a 1867, 2 vols. (Paris: Reinwald, 1879-80).
(35)
In works dealing with race and racism Renan occupies a position of some importance. He is treated in the following: Ernest Seilliere, La philosophic de l’imperialisme, 4 vols. (Paris: Plon, 1903–8); Theophile Simar, Etude critique sur la formation de la doctrine des races au XVW siecle et son expansion au XIX⋆ siecle (Brussels: Hayez, 1922); Erich Voegelin, Rasse und Staat (Tibingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1933), and here one must also mention his Die Rassenidee in der Geistesgeschichte von Ray bis Carus (Berlin: Junker und Dunnhaupt, 1933), which, although it does not deal with Renan’s period, is an important complement to Rasse und Staat, Jacques Barzun, Race: A Study in Modern Superstition (New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1937).
(36)
In La Renaissance orientale Schwab has some brilliant pages on the museum, on the parallelism between biology and linguistics, and on Cuvier, Balzac, and others; see p. 323 and passim. On the library and its importance for mid-nineteenth-century culture, see Foucault, “La Bibliotheque fantastique,” which is his preface to Flaubert’s La Tentation de Saint Antoine (Paris: Gallimard, 1971), pp. 7–33. I am indebted to professor Eugenio Donato for drawing my attention to these matters; see his “A Mere Labyrinth of Letters: Flaubert and the Quest for Fiction,” Modern Language Notes 89,” no. 6 (December 1974): 885–910.
(37)
Renan, Histoire generate, pp. 145–66.
(38)
See L’Avenir de la science, p. 508 and passim.
(39)
Renan, Histoire generate, p. 214.
(40)
Ibid., p. 527. This idea goes back to Friedrich Schlegel’s distinction between organic and agglutinative languages, of which latter type Semitic is an instance. Humboldt makes the same distinction, as have most Orientalists since Renan.
(41)
Ibid., pp. 531-2.
(42)
Ibid., p. 515 and passim.
(43)
See Jone Seznes, Nouvelles Etudes sur “La Tentation de Saint Antoine” (London: Warburg Institute, 1949), p. 80.
(44)
See Etienne Geoffrey Saint-HUaira, Philosophic anatomique: Des monstruosites humaines (Paris: puplished by the author, 1822). The complete title of Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire’s work is: Histoire generate et particuliere des anomalies de l’organisation chez l’homme et les animaux, ouvrage comprenante des recherches sur les caracteres, la classification, influence physiologique et pathologique, les rapports generaux, les lots et les causes des monstruosites, des varieties et vices de conformation, ou traite de teratologie, 3 vols. (Paris: J.-B. Bailliere, 1832–36). There are some valuable pages on Goethe’s biological ideas in Erich Heller, The Disinherited Mind (New York: Meridian Books, 1959), pp. 3–34. See also Jacob, The Logic of Life, and Canguilhem, La Connaissance de la vie, pp. 174–84, for very interesting accounts of the Saint-Hilaires place in the development of the life sciences.
(45)
E. Saint-Hilaire, Philosophic anatomique, pp. xxii-xxiii.
(46)
Renan, Histoire generale, p. 156.
(47)
Renan, Oeuvres completes, 1: 621–2 anehpassim. See H. W. Wardman, Ernest Renan: A Critical Biography (London: Athlone Press, 1964), p. 66 and passim, for a subtle description of Renan’s domestic life; although one would not wish to force a parallel between Renan’s biography and what I have called his “masculine” world, Wardman’s descriptions here are suggestive indeed at least to me.
(48)
Renan, “Des services rendus au sciences historiques par la philologie,” In Oeuvres completes, 8: 1228, 1232.
(49)
Ernest Cassirer, The Problem of Knowledge: Philosophy, Science, and History since Hegel, trans. William H. Woglom and Charles W. Hendel (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1950), p. 307.
(50)
Renan, “Reponse au discours de reception de M. de Lesseps (23 avril 1885),” in Oeuvres completes, 1: 817. Yet the value of being truly contemporary was best shown with reference to Renan by Sainte-Beuve in his articles of June 1862. See also Donald G. Charlton, positivist Thought in France During the Second Empire (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959), and his Secular Religions in France. Also Richard M. Chadbourne, “Renan and Sainte-Beuve,” Romanic Review 44, no. 2 (April 1953): 126–35.

ثالثًا: الإقامة في الشرق ودراسته

(1)
Renan, Oeuvres completes, 8: 156.
(2)
In his letter of June 26, 1856, to Gobineau, Oeuvres completes, 10: 203-4. Gobineau’s ideas were expressed in his Essai sur finegalite des races humaines (1853–55).
(3)
Cited by Albert Hourani in his excellent article “Islam and the Philosophers of History,” p. 222.
(4)
Caussin de Perceval, Essai sur l’histoire des Arabes avant l’Islamisme, pendant l’epoque de Mahomet et jusqu’d la reduction de toutes les triemische les tribus sous la loi musulmane (1847-48; reprint ed., Graz, Austria: Aka demische Druck-und Verlagsanstalt, 1967), 3: 332–9.
(5)
Thomas Cariyle, On Herose, Hera-Worship, and the Heroic in History (1841; reprint ed., New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1906), p. 63.
(6)
Macaulay’s Indian experiences are described by G. Otto Trevelyan, The life and Letters of Lord Macaulay (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1875), 1: 344–71. The complete text of Macaulay’s “Minute” is conveniently to be found in Philip D. Curtin, ed., Imperialism: The Documentary History of Western Civilization (New York: Walker & Co., 1971), pp. 178–91. Some consequences of Macaulay’s views for British Orientalism are discussed in A. J. Arberry, British Orientalists (London: William Collins, 1943).
(7)
John Henry Newman, The Turks in their Relation to Europe, vol. l of his Historical Sketches (1853; reprint ed., London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1920)
(8)
See Marguerite-Louise Ancelot, Salons de Paris, foyers eteints (Paris: Jules Tardieu, 1858).
(9)
Kari Marx, Surveys from Exile, ed. David Fembach (London: Pelican Books, 1973), pp. 306-7.
(10)
Ibid., p. 320.
(11)
Edward William Lane, Author’s Preface to An Account of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians (1836; reprint ed., London: J. M. Dent, 1936), pp. xx, xxi.
(12)
Ibid., p. 1.
(13)
Ibid., pp. 160-1. The standard biography of Lane, published in 1877, was by his great-nephew, Stanley Lane-Poole. There is a sympathetic account of Lane by A. J. Arberry in his Oriental Essays: Portraits of Seven Scholars (New York: Macmillan Co., 1960), pp. 87–121.
(14)
Frederick Eden Pargiter, ed., Contenary. Volume of the Royal Asiatis Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1823–1923 (London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1923), p. x.
(15)
Societe asiatique: Livre du centenaira, 1822–1922 (Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1922), pp. 5-6.

رابعًا: الحُجَّاج ورحلات الحج من بريطانيا وفرنسا

(1)
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Westostlicher Diwan (1819; reprinted., Munich: Wilhelm Golmann, 1958), pp. 8-9, 12. Sacy’s name is invoked with veneration in Goeathe’s apparatus for the Diwan.
(2)
Victor Hugo, Les Orientales, in Oeuvres poetiques, ed. Pierre Albouy (Paris: Gallimard, 1964), 1: 616–18.
(3)
Francois-Rene de Chateaubriand, Oeuvres romanesques et voyages, ed. Maurice Regard (Paris: Gallimard, 1969), 2: 702.
(4)
See Henri Bordeaux, Voyageurs cfOrient: Des pelerins aux meharistes de Palmyre (Paris: Plon, 1926). I have found useful the theoretical ideas about pilgrims and pilgrimages contained in Victor Turner, Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society (lthaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1974), pp. 166–230.
(5)
Hassan al-Nouty, Le Proche-Orient dans la litterature francaise de Nerval a Barres (Paris: Nizet, 1958), pp. 47-8, 277, 272.
(6)
Chateaubriand, Oeuvres, 2: 702 and note, 1684, 769-70, 769, 701, 808, 908.
(7)
Ibid., pp. 1011, 979, 990, 1052.
(8)
Ibid., p. 1069.
(9)
Ibid., p. 1031.
(10)
Ibid., p. 999.
(11)
Ibid., pp. 1126-27, 1049.
(12)
Ibid., p. 1137.
(13)
Ibid., pp. 1148, 1214.
(14)
Alphones de Lamartine, Voyage en Orient (1835; reprint ed., Paris: Hachette, 1887), 1: 10, 48-9, 179, 178, 148, 189, 118, 245-6, 251.
(15)
Ibid., 1: 363; 2: 74-5; 1: 475.
(16)
Ibid., 2: 92-3.
(17)
Ibid., 2: 526-7, 533. Two important works on French writers in the Orient are Jean-Marie Carre, Voyageurs et ecrivains francais en Egypte, 2 vols. (Cairo: Institut francais d’archeologie orientale, 1932), and Moenis Taha-Hussein, Le Romantisme francais et t’Islam (Beirut: Der-el-Maeref, 1962).
(18)
Gerard de Nerval, Les Filles du feu, In Oeuvres, ed. Albert Beguin and Jean Richet (Paris: Gallimard, 1960), 1: 297-8.
(19)
Mario Praz, The Romantic Agony, trans. Angus Davison (Cleveland, Ohio: World Publishing Co., 1967).
(20)
Jean Bruneau, Le “Conte Orientale” de Flaubert (Paris: Denole, 1973), p. 79.
(21)
There are all considered by Bruneau in ibid.
(22)
Nerval, Voyage en Orient, in Oeuvres, 2: 68, 194, 96, 342.
(23)
Ibid., p. 181.
(24)
Michel Butor, “Travel and Writing,” trans. John Powers and K. Lisker, Mosaic 8, no. 1 (Fall 1974); 13.
(25)
Nerval, Voyage en Orient, p. 628.
(26)
Ibid., pp. 706. 718.
(27)
Flaubert in Egypt: A Sensibility on Tour, trans. and ed. Francis Steegmuller (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1973), p. 200. I have also consulted the following texts, in which all Flaubert’s “Oriental” material is to be found: Oeuvres completes de Gustave Flaubert (Paris: club de l’Honnete homme, 1973), vols. 10, 11; Les Lettres d’Egypte, de Gustave Flaubert, ed. A. Youssef Naaman (Paris: Nizet, 1965); Flaubert, Correspondance, ed. Jean Bruneau (Paris, Gallimard, 1973), 1: 518 ff.
(28)
Harry Levin, The Gates of Horn: A Study of Five French Realists (New York: Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 285.
(29)
Flaubert in Egypt, pp. 173, 75.
(30)
Levin, Gates of Horn, p. 271.
(31)
Flaubert, Catalogue des opinions chic, in Oeuvres, 2: 1019.
(32)
Flaubert in Egypt, p. 65.
(33)
Ibid., pp. 220, 130.
(34)
Flaubert, La Tentation de Saint Antoine, in Oeuvres, 1: 85.
(35)
See Flaubert, Salammbo, in Oeuvres, 1: 809 ff. See also Maurice Z. Shroder, “On Reading Salammbo’ L’Esprit createur 10,” no. I (Spring 1970): 24–35.
(36)
Flaubert in Egypt, pp. 198-9.
(37)
Foucault, “La Bibliotheque fantastique,” in Flaubert, La Tentation de Saint Antoine, pp. 7–33.
(38)
Flaubert in Egypt, p. 79.
(39)
Ibid., pp. 211-2.
(40)
For a discussion of this process see Foucault, Archaeology of Knowledge; also Joseph Ben-David, The Scientist’s Role in Society (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1971). See also Edward W. Said, “An Ethics of Language,” Diacritics 4, no. 2 (Summer 1974): 28–37.
(41)
See the invaluable listings in Richard Bevis, Bibliotheca Cisorientalia: An Annotated Checklist of Early English Travel Books on the Near and Middle East (Boston: G. K. Hall & Co., 1973).
(42)
For discussions of the American travelers see Dorothee Metlitski Finkelstein, Melville’s Orienda (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1961), and Franklin Walker, Irreverent Pilgrims: Melville, Browne, and Mark Twain in the Holy Land (Seattle; University of Washington Press, 1974).
(43)
Alexander William Kinglake, Eothen, or Traces of Travel Brought Home from the East, ed. D. G. Hogarth (1844; reprint ed., London: Henry Frowde, 1906), pp. 25, 68, 241, 220.
(44)
Flaubert in Egypt, p. 81.
(45)
Thomas J. Assad, Three Victorian Travellers: Burton, Blunt and Doughty (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1964) p. 5.
(46)
Richard Burton, Personal Narrative of a Pilgrimage to al-Madinah and Meccah, ed. Isabel Burton (London: Tyiston & Edwards, 1893), 1: 9, 108–10.
(47)
Richard Burton, “Terminal Essay,” in The Book of the Thousand and One Nights (London: Burton Club, 1886), 10: 63–302.
(48)
Burton, Pilgrimage, 1: 112, 114.

الفصل الثالث: الاستشراق الآن

أولًا: الاستشراق الكامن والاستشراق السافر

(1)
Friedrich Nietzsche, “On Truth and Lie in an Extra-Moral Sense,” in The Portable Nietzsche, ed. and trans. Walter Kaufmann (New York: Viking Press, 1954), pp. 46-7.
(2)
The number of Arab travelers to the West is estimated and considered by Ibrahim Abu-Lughod in Arab Rediscovery of Europe: A Study in Cultural Encounters (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963), pp. 75-6 and passim.
(3)
See Philip D. Curtin, ed., Imperialism: The Documentary History of Western Civilization (New York: Walker & Co., 1972), pp. 73–105.
(4)
See Johann W. Fuck, “Islam as an Historical Problem in European Historigraphy since 1800,” in Historians of the Middle East, ed. Bernard Lewis and P. M. Holt (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), p. 307.
(5)
Ibid., p. 309.
(6)
See Jacques Waardenburg, L’Islam dans le miroir de l’Occident (The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1963).
(7)
Ibid., p. 311.
(8)
P. Masson-Oursel, “La Connaissance scientifique de l’Asia en France depuis 1900 et les varieties de l’Orientalisme,” Revue Philosophique 143, nos. 7–9 (July-September 1953): 345.
(9)
Evelyn Baring, Lord Cromer, Modern Egypt (New York: Macmillan Co., 1908), 2: 237-8.
(10)
Evelyn Baring, Lord Cromer, Ancient and Modern Imperialism (London: John Murray, 1910), pp. 118, 120.
(11)
George Nathanile Curzon, Subjects of the Day: Being a Selection of Speeches and Writings (London: George Alien & Unwin, 1915), pp. 4-5, 10, 28.
(12)
Ibid., pp. 184, 191-2. For the history of the school, see C. H. Phillips, The School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London. 19 IP-1967: An Introduction (London: Design for Print, 1967).
(13)
Eric Stokes, The English Utilitarians and India (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1959).
(14)
Cited in Micheal Edwardes, High Noon of Empire: India Under Curzon (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1965), pp. 38-9.
(15)
Curzon, Subjects of the Day, pp. 155-6.
(16)
Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness, in Youth and Two Other Stories (Gadden City, N. Y.: Doubleday, Page, 1925), p. 52.
(17)
For an illustrative extract from de Vattel’s work see Curtin, ed., lmperialism, pp. 4265.
(18)
Cited by M. de Caix, La Syrie in Gabriel Hanotaux, Histoire des colonies francaises, 6 vols. (Paris: Societe de l’histoire nationale nationale, 1929–33), 3: 481.
(19)
These details are to be found in Verhon McKay, “Colonialism in the French Geographical Movement,” Geographical Review 33, no. 2 (April 1943): 214–32.
(20)
Agnes Murphy, The Ideology of French Imperialism, 1817–1881 (Washington: Catholic University of America Press, 1948), pp. 46, 54, 36, 45.
(21)
Ibid., pp. 189, 110, 136.
(22)
Jukka Nevakivi, Britain, France, and the Arab Middle East, 1914–1920 (London: Athlone Press, 1969), p. 13.
(23)
Ibid., p. 24.
(24)
D. G. Hogarth, The Penetration of Arabia: A Record of the Development of Western Knowledge Concerning the Arabian Peninsula (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1904). There is a good recent book on the same subject: Robin Bidwell, Bidwell, Travellers in Arabia (London: Paul Hamlyn, 1976).
(25)
Edmond Bremond, Le Hedjaz dans la guerre mondiale (Paris: Payot, 1931), pp. 242 ff.
(26)
Le Comte de Cressaty, Les Interets de la France on Syrie (Paris: Floury, 1913).

ثانيًا: الأسلوب والخبرة والرؤية: الطابع الدنيوي للاستشراق

(1)
Rudyard Kipling, Verse (Garden City, N.Y.: Doublday & Co., 1954), p. 280.
(2)
The themes of exclusion and confinement in nineteenth-century culture have played an impotant role in Michel Focaulfs work, most recently in his Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison (New York: Pantheon Books, 1977), and The History of Sexuality, Volume 1: An Introduction (New York: Pantheon Books, 1978).
(3)
The Letters of T. E. Lawrence of Arabia, ed. David Garnett (1938; reprint ed., London: Spring Books, 1964), p. 244.
(4)
Gerurde Bell, The Desert and the Sown (London: William Heinemann, 1907), p. 244.
(5)
Gertrude Bell, From Her Personal Papers, 1889–1914, ed. Elizabeth Burgoyne (London: Ernest Beni, 1958), p. 204.
(6)
William Butler Yeats, “Byzantium,” The Collected Poems (New York: Macmillan Co., 1959), p. 244.
(7)
Stanley Diamond, In Search of the Primitive: A Critique of Civilization (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books, 1974), p. 119.
(8)
See Harry Bracken, “Essence, Accident and Raca,” Hermathena 116 (Winter 1973): pp. 81–96.
(9)
George Eliot, Middlemarch: A Study of Provincial Life (1872; reprinted., Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1956), p. 13.
(10)
Lionel Trilling. Matthew Arnold (1939; reprint ed., New York; Meridian Books. 1955). p. 214.
(11)
See Hannah Arendt, The Origins of Totalitarianism (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973), p. 180, note 55.
(12)
W. Robertson Smith, Kinship and Marriage in Early Arabia, ed. Notes Stanley Cook (1907: reprint ed., Oesterhout, N.B.: Anthropological Publications, 1966), pp. xiii, 241.
(13)
W. Robertson Smith, Lectures and Essays, ed. John Sutherland Black and George Chrystal (London: Adam & Charles Black, 1912), pp. 492-3.
(14)
Ibid., pp. 492, 493, 511, 500, 498–9.
(15)
Charles M. Doughty, Travels in Arabia Deserta, 2nd ed., 2 vols. (New York: Random House, n.d.), 1: 95. See also the excellent article by Richard Bevis, “Spiritual Geology: C. M. Doughty and the Land of the Arabs,” Victorian Studies 16 (December 1972), 163–81.
(16)
T. E. Lawrence, The Seven Pillars of Wisdom: A Triumph (1926; reprint ed., Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, Doran & Co., 1935), p. 28.
(17)
For a discussion of this see Talal Asad, “Two European Images of Non-European Rule,” in Anthropology and the Colonial Encounter, ed. Talal Asad (London: Ithaca Press, 1975), pp. 103–18.
(18)
Arendt, Origins of Totalitarianism, p. 218.
(19)
T. E. Lawrence Oriental Assembly, ed. A. W. Lawrence (New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., 1940), p. 95.
(20)
Cited in Stephen Ely Tabachnick, “The Two Veils of T. E. Lawrence,” Studies in the Twentieth Century 16 (Fall 1975): 96-7.
(21)
Lawrence, Seven Pillars of Wisdom, pp. 42-3, 661.
(22)
Ibid., pp. 549, 550–2.
(23)
E. M. Forster, A Passage to India (1924; reprint ed., New York: Harcourt, Brace & Co., 1952), p. 322.
(24)
Maurica Barres, Une Enquete aux pays du Levant (Paris: Plon, 1923), 1: 20; 2: 181, 192, 193, 197.
(25)
D. G. Hogarth, The Wandering Scholar (London: Oxford University Press, 1924). Hogarth describes his style as that of “the explorer first and the scholar second” (p. 4).
(26)
Cited by H. A. R. Gibb, “Structure of Religious Thought in Islam,” in Islam, in his Studies on the Civilization of Islam, ed. Stanford J. Shaw and William R. Polk (Boston: Beacon Press, 1962), p. 180.
(27)
Frederic Lefevre, “Une Heure avec Sylvain Levi,” in Memorial Sylvain Levi, ed. Jacques Bacot (Paris: Paul Hartmann, 1937), pp. 123-4.
(28)
Paul Valery, Oeuvres, ed. Jean Hytier (Paris: Gaillmard, 1960), 2: 1556-7.
(29)
Cited in Christopher Sykes, Crossroads to Israel (1965; reprint ed., Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1973), p. 5.
(30)
Cited in Alan Sandison, The Wheel of Empire: A Study of the Imperial Idea in Some Late Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century Fiction (New York: St. Martin’s Press. 1967), p. 158. An excellent study of the French equivalent is Martine Astier Loutfi, Litterature et colonialisme: L’Expansion coloniale vue dans la literature romanesque francaise, 1871–1914 (The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1971).
(31)
Paul Valery, Variete (Paris: Gallimard, 1924), p. 43.
(32)
George Orwell, “Marrakech,” in A Collection of Essays (New york: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1954), p. 187.
(33)
Valentine Chirol, The Occident and the Orient (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1924), p. 6.
(34)
Filie Faure, “Orient et Occident,” Mercure de France 229 (July 1–August 1, 1931): 263, 264, 269, 270, 272.
(35)
Femand Baldensperger, “Ou s’affrontent l’Orient et l’Occident intellectuels,” in Etudes d’histoire litteraire, 3rd seri (Paris: Droz, 1939), p. 230.
(36)
I. A. Richards, Mencius on the Mind: Experiments in Multiple Definitions (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1932), p. xiv.

ثالثًا: الاستشراق الأنجلوفرنسي الحديث في أوج ازدهاره

(1)
Selected Works of C. Snouck Hurgronje, ed. G. H. Bousquet and J. Schacht (Liden: E. J. Brill, 1957), p. 267.
(2)
H. A. R. Gibb, “Literature,” in The Legacy of Islam, ed. Thomas Arnold and Alfred Guillaume (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1931), p. 209.
(3)
The best general account of this period in political, social, economic, and cultural terms is to be found in Jacques Berque, Egypt: Imperialism and Revolution, trans. Jean Stewart (New York: Praeger Publishers, 1972).
(4)
There is a useful account of the intellectual project informing their work in Arthur R. Evans, Jr., ed., on Four Modern Humanists: Hofmannsthal, Gundolf, Curtius, Kantorowicz (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1970).
(5)
Erich Auerbach, Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, trans. Willard R. Trask (1946; reprint ed., Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1968), and his Literary Language and lts Public in Late Latin Antiquity and in the Middle Ages, trans. Ralph Manheim (New York: Bollingen Books, 1965).
(6)
Erich Auerbach, “Philology and Weltliteratur;” 1 trans. M. and E. W. Said, Centennial Review 13, no. 1 (Winter 1969): 11.
(7)
Ibid., p. 17.
(8)
For example, in H. Stuart Hughes, Consciousness and Society: The Reconstruction of European Social Thought, 1890–1930 (1958; reprint ed., New York: Vintage Books, 1961).
(9)
See Anwar Abdel Malek, “Orientalism in Crisis,” Diogenes 44 (Winter 1963): 103–40.
(10)
R. N. Cust, “The Internationl Congresses of Orientalists,” Hellas 6. no. 4 (1897); 349.
(11)
See W. F. Wertheim, “Counter-insurgency Research at the Turn of the Century Snouck Hurgronje and the Acheh War,” Sociologische Gids 19 (Semptember–December 1972).
(12)
Sylvain Levi, “Les Parts respectives des nations occidentales dans les progress de l’indianisme,” in Memorial Sylvain Levi, p. 116.
(13)
H. A. R. Gibb, “Louis Massignon (1882–1962),” Jounral of the Royal Asiatic Society (1962), pp. 120, 121.
(14)
Louis Massignon, Opera Minora, ed. Y. Moubarac (Beirut: Dar-el-Maaref, 1963), 3: 114. I have used the complete bibliography of Massignon’s work by Moubarac: L’Oeuvre de Louis Massignon (Beirut: Editions du Cenacle libanais, 1972-73).
(15)
Massignon, “L’Occident devant l’Orient: Primaute d⋆une solution culturelle,” in Opera Minora, 1: 208–23.
(16)
Ibid., p. 169.
(17)
See Waardenburg, L’Islam dans le miroir de l’Occident, pp. 147, 183, 186, 192, 211, 213.
(18)
Massignon, Opera Minora, 1: 227.
(19)
Ibid., p. 355.
(20)
Quoted from Massignon’s essay on Biruni in Waardenburg, L’Islam dans le miroir de l’Occident, p. 225.
(21)
Massignon, Opera Minora, 3: 526.
(22)
Ibid., pp. 610-11.
(23)
Ibid., p. 212. Also p.211 for another attack on the British, and pp. 423–7 for his assessment of Lawrence.
(24)
Quoted in Waardenburg, L’Islam dans le miroir de L’Occident, p. 219.
(25)
Ibid., pp. 218-19.
(26)
See A. L. Tibawi, “English-Speaking Orientalists: A Critique of their Approach to Islam and Arab Nationalism, Part I,”Islamic Quarterly 8, nos. 1, 2 (January–June 1964): 25–44; “Part II,”Islamic Quarterly 8, nos. 3, 4 (July–December 1964): 73–88.
(27)
“Une figure domine tous les genres of Orientalist work, celle de Louis Massignon”: Claude Cahen and Charles Pellat, “Les fitudes arabes et islamiques,” Journal asiatique 261, nos. 1, 4 (1973): 104. There is a very detailed survey of the Islamic-Orientalist field to be found in Jean Sauvaget, Introduction a l’histoire de l’Orient musulman: Elements de bibliographic, ed. Claude Cahen (Paris: Adrien Maisonneuve, 1961).
(28)
William Polk, “Sir Hamilton Gibb Between Orientalism and History,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 6, no. 2 (April 1975): 131–9. I have used the bibliography of Gibb’s work in Arabic and Islamic Studies in Honor of Hamilton A. R. Gibb, ed. George Makdisi (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1965), pp. 1–20.
(29)
H. A. R. Gibb, “Oriental Studies in the United Kingdom,” in The Near East and the Great Powers, ed. Richard N. Frye (Cambridge, mass.: Harvard University Press, 1951), pp. 86-7.
(30)
Albert Hourani, “Sir Hamilton Gibb. 1895–1971,” Proceedings of the British Academy 58 (1972), p. 504.
(31)
Duncan Black Macdonald, The Religious Attitude and Life in Islam (1909; reprint ed., Beirut: Khayats Publishers, 1965), pp. 2–11.
(32)
H. A. R. Gibb, “Whither Islam?” in Whither Islam? A Survey of Modern Movements in the Moslem World, ed. H. A. R. Gibb (London: Victor Gollancz, 1932), pp. 328, 387.
(33)
Ibid., p. 335.
(34)
Ibid., p. 377.
(35)
H. A. R. Gibb, “The Influence of Islamic Culture on Medieval Europe,” John Rylands Library Bulletin 38, no. 1 (September 1955): 98.
(36)
H. A. R. Gibb, Mohammedanism: An Historical Survey (London: Oxford University Press, 1949), pp. 2, 9, 84.
(37)
Ibid., pp. 111, 88, 189.
(38)
H. A. R. Gibb, Modern Trends in Islam (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1947), pp. 108. 113, 123.
(39)
Both essays are to be found in Gibb’s Studies on the Civilization of Islam, pp. 176–208 and 3–33.

رابعا: آخر مرحلة

(1)
R. Emmett Tyrell, Jr,. “Chimera in the Middle East,” Harper’s, November 1976, pp. 35–8.
(2)
Cited in Ayad al-Qazzaz, Ruth Afiyo, et al., The Arabs in Amerian Textbooks, California State Board of Education, June 1975, pp. 10, 15.
(3)
“Statement of Purpose,” MESA Bulletin 1, no. 1 (May 1967): 33.
(4)
Morroe Berger, “Middle Eastern and North African Studies: Developments and Needs,” MESA Bulletin 1. no. 2 (November 1967): 16.
(5)
Menachem Mansoor, “Present State of Arabic Studies in the United States,” in Report on Current Research 1958, ed. Kathleen H. Brown (Washington: Middle East Institute, 1958), pp. 55-6.
(6)
Harold Lasswell, “Propaganda,” Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences (1934), 12: 527. I owe this reference to Professor Noam Chomsky.
(7)
Marcal Proust, The Guermantes Way, trans. C. K. Scott Moncrieff (1925; reprint ed., New York: Vintage Books, 1970), p. 135.
(8)
Nathaniel Schmidt, “Early Oriental Studies in Europe and the Work of the American Oriental Society, 1842–1922,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 43 (1923): 11. See also E. A. Speiser. “Near Eastern Studies in America. 1939–45,” Archiv Orientalni 16 (1948): 76–88.
(9)
As an instance there is Henry Jessup, Fifty-Three Years in Syria, 2 vols. (New York: Fleming H. Revell, 1910).
(10)
For the connection between the issuing of the Balfour Declaration and United States wer policy, see Doreen Ingrams, Palestine Papers 1917–1922: Seeds of Conflict (London: Cox & Syman, 1972), pp. 10 ff.
(11)
Mortimer Graves, “A Cultural Relations Policy in the Near East,” in The Near East and the Great Powers, ed. Frye, pp. 76, 78.
(12)
George Camp Keiser, “The Middle East Institute: Its Inception and Its Place in American International Studies,” in The Near East and the Great Powers, ed. Frye, pp. 80, 84.
(13)
For an account of this migration, see The Intellectual Migration: Europe and Americe, 1930–1960, ed. Donald Fleming and Bernard Bailyn (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1969).
(14)
Gustave von Grunebaum, Modern Islam: The Search for Cultural Identity (New York: Vintage Books, 1964), pp. 55, 261.
(15)
Abdullah Laroui, “Pour une methodologie des etudes islamiques: L’Islam au miroir de Gustave von Grunebaum,” Diogene 38 (July-September 1973): 30. This essay has been collected in Laroui’s The Crisis of the Arab Intellectuals: Traditionalism or Historicism? trans. Diarmid Cammell (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976).
(16)
David Gordon, Self-Determination and History in the Third World (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1971).
(17)
Laroui, “Pour une methodologie des etudes islamiques,” p. 41.
(18)
Manfred Halpern, “Middle East Studies: A Review of the State of the Field with a Few Examples,” World Politics 15 (October 1962): 121-2.
(19)
Ibid., p. 117.
(20)
Leonard Binder. “1974 Presidential Address,” MESA Bulletin 9, no. 1 (February 1975): 2.
(21)
Ibid., p. 5.
(22)
“Middle East Studies Network in the United States,” MERIP Reports 38 (June 1975): 5.
(23)
The two best Critical reviews of the Cambridge History are by Albert Hourani, The English Historical Review 87, no. 343 (April 1972): 348–57, and Roger Owon, Journal of Interdisciplinary History 4, no. 2 (Autumn 1973): 287–98.
(24)
P. M. Holt, Introduction, The Cambridge History of Islam, ed. P. M. Holt, Anne K. S. Lambton, and Bernard Lewis. 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970), 1: xi.
(25)
D. Sourdel, “The Abbasid Caliphate,” Cambridge History of Islam, ed. Holt et al., 1: 121.
(26)
Z. N. Zeine, “The Arab Lands,” Cambridge History of Islam, ed. Holt et al., 1: 575.
(27)
Dankwart A. Rustow, “The Political Impact of the West,” Cambridge History of Islam, ed. Holt et al., 1: 697.
(28)
Cited in Ingrams, Palestine Papers, 1917–1922, pp. 31-2.
(29)
Robert Alter, “Rhetoric and the Arab Mind,” Commentary, October 1986, pp. 61–58. Alter’s article was an adulatory review of General Yeho-shafat Harkabi’s Arab Attitudes to Israel (Jerusalem: Keter Press, 1972).
(30)
Gil Carl Alroy, “Do The Arabs Want Peace?” Commentary, February 1974, pp. 56–61.
(31)
Roland Barthes, Mythologies, trans. Annette Lavers (New York: Hill & Wang, 1972), pp. 109–59.
(32)
Raphael Patai, Golden River to Golden Road: Society, Culture, and Change in the Middle East (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1962; 3rd rev. ed., 1969), p. 406.
(33)
Raphael Patai, The Arab Mind (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1973). For an even more racist work see John Laffin, The Arab Mind Considered: A Need for Understanding (New York: Taplinger Publishing Co., 1976).
(34)
Sania Hamady, Temperament and Character of the Arabs (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1960), p. 100. Hamady’s book is a favorite amongst Israelis and Israeli apologists; Alroy cites her approvingly, and so does Amos Elon in The Israelis: Founders and Sons (New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1971). Morroe Berger (see note 137 below) also cites her frequently. Her model is Lane’s Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians, but she has none of Lane’s literacy or general learning.
(35)
Manfred Halpem’s thesis is presented in “Four Contrasting Repertories of Human Relations in Islam: Two pre-Modern and Two Modern Ways of Humman Relations in Islam: Two Pre-Modern and Two Modern ways of Dealing with Continuity and Change, Collaboration and Conflict and the Achieving of Justice,” a paper presented to the 22nd Near East Conference at Princeton University on Psychology and Near Eastern Studies, May 8, 1973 This treatise was prepared for by Halpem’s “A Redefinition of the Revolutionary Situation,” Journal of lnternational Affairs 23, no 1(1969): 54–75
(36)
Morroe Berger, The Arab World Today (New York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1964), p. 140. Much the same sort of implication underlies the clumsy work of quasi-Arabists like Joel Carmichael and Daniel Lerner; it is there more subtly in political and historical scholars such as Theodore Draper, Walter Laqueur, and Elie Kedourie. It is strongly in evidence in such highly regarded works as Gabriel Baer⋆s Population and Society in the Arab East, trans. Hanna Szoke (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1964), and Alfred Bonne’s State and Economics in the Middle East: A Society in Transition (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1955). The consensus seems to be that if they think at all. Arabs think differently—i.e., not necessarily with reason, and often without it. See also Adel Daher’s RAND study, Current Trends in Arab Intellectual Thought (RM-5979-ff, December 1969) and its typical conclusion that “the concrete problem-solving approach is conspicuously absent from Arab thought” (p. 29). In a review-essay for the Journal of Interdisciplinary History (see note 124 above), Roger Owen attacks the very notion of “Islam” as a concept for the study of History. His focus is The Cambridge History of Islam (to be found in such Writes as Carl Becker and Max Weber) “defined essentially as a religious, feudal, and antirational system, [that] lacked the necessary characteristics which had made European progress possible.” For a sustained proof of Weber’s total inaccuracy, see Maxime Rodinson’s Islam and Capitalism, trans. Brian Pearce (New York: Pantheon Books. 1974), pp. 76–117.
(37)
Hamady, Character and Temperament, p. 197.
(38)
Berger, Arab World, p. 102.
(39)
Quoted by Irene Gendzier in Frantz Fanon: A Critical Study (New York: Pantheon Books, 1973), p. 94.
(40)
Berger, Arab World, p. 151.
(41)
P. J. Vatikiotis, ed., Revolution in the Middle East, and Other Case Studies; proceedings of a seminar (London: George Alien & Unwin. 1972), pp. 8-9.
(42)
Ibid., pp. 12, 13.
(43)
Bernard Lewis, “Islamic Concepts of Revolution,” in ibid., pp. 33, 38-9. Lewis’s study Race and Color in Islam (New York: Harper & Row, 1971) expresses similar disaffection with an air of great learning; more explicitly political—but no less acid—is his Islam in History: ldeas, Men and Events in the Middle East (London: Alcove Press, 1973).
(44)
Bernard Lewis, “The Revolt of Islam,” in The Middle East and The West (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1964), p. 95.
(45)
Bernard Lewis, “The Return of Islam,” Commentary, January 1967, p. 44.
(46)
Ibid., p. 40.
(47)
Bernard Lewis, History—Remembered, Recovered, Invented (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1975), p. 68.
(48)
Lewis, Islam in History, p. 65.
(49)
Lewis, The Middle East and the West, pp. 60, 87.
(50)
Lewis, Islam in History, pp. 65-6.
(51)
Originally published in Middle East Journal 5 (1951). Collected in Readings in Arab Middle Eastern Societies and Cultures, ed. Abdulla Lutfiyye and Charles W. Churchill (The Hague: Mouton & Co., 1970), pp. 688–703.
(52)
Lewis, The Middle East and West, p. 140.
(53)
Robert K. Merton, “The Perspectives of Insiders and Outsiders,” in his The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations, ed. Norman W. Storer (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1973), pp. 99–136.
(54)
See, for example, the recent work of Anwar Abdel Malek, Yves Lacoste, and the authors of essays published in Review of Middle East Studies 1 and 2 (London: Ithaca Press, 1975, 1976), the various analyses of Middle Eastern politics by Noam Chomsky, and the work done by the Middle East Research and Information Project (MERIP). A good prospectus is provided in Gabriel Ardant, Kostas Axelos, Jacques Berque et aL, De l’imperialisme a la decolonization (Paris: Editions de Minuit, 1965).

تذييل الطبعة ١٩٩٥م

(1)
Martin Bernal, Black Athena (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, Volume I, 1987; Volume II 1991); Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Rangers, eds., The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984).
(2)
O’Hanlon and Washbrook, “After Orientalism: Culture, Criticsm, and Politics in the Third World”; Prakash, “Can the Subaltern Ride? A Reply to O’Hanlon and Washbrook,” both in Comparative Studies in Society and History, IV, 9 (January 1992), 141–84.
(3)
In one particularly telling instance, Lewis’s habits of tendentious generalization do seem to have gotten him in legal trouble. According to Liberation (1 March 1994) and the Guardian (8 March 1994), Lewis now Faces both criminal and civil suits brought against him in France by Armenian and human rights organizations. He is being charged under the same statute that makes it a crime in France to deny that the Nazi Holocuast took place; the charge against him is denying (in French newspapers) that a genocide of Armenians occurred under the Ottoman empire.
(4)
Carol Breckenridge and Peter van der Veer, eds., Orientalism and the Postcolonial Predicament (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993).
(5)
Nicholas B. Dirks, ed., Colonialism and Culture (Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1992).
(6)
“The Clash of Civilizations,” Foreign Affairs 71, 3 (Summer 1993), 22–49.
(7)
“Notes on the ‘Post-Colonial’,” Social Text, 31/32 (1992), 106.
(8)
Magdoff, “Globalisation—To What End?” Socialist Register 1992: New World Order? ed. Ralph Milliband and Leo Panitch (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1992), 1–32.
(9)
Miyoshi, “A Borderless World? From Colonialism to Transnationalism and the Decline of the Nation-State,” Critical Inquiry, 19, 4 (Summer 1993), 726–51; Dirlik, “The Postcolonial Aura: Third World Criticism in the Age of Global Capitalism,” Critical Inquiry, 20, 2 (Winter 1994), 328–56.
(10)
Ireland’s Field Day (London: Hutchinson, 1985), pp. viiviii.
(11)
Alcalay (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993); Gilroy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1993); Ferguson (London: Routledge, 1992).
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